CFM: July 17–23
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Resources and Insights about this Week's Lesson
The materials this week cover Peter's revelation to take the Gospel to the Gentile nations. An understanding of the culture can help one to better appreciate the significance and challenges associated with this revelation.
Political & Social Structure:
At the very beginning of the year, we discussed the political and social hierarchy within Jerusalem around the time of Christ. The chart below helps to summarize the basic hierarchical structure in Jerusalem, among the Jews, at the time of Christ.
During this time, the Jewish community was diverse and comprised various sects and groups with differing beliefs and practices within and outside of Jerusalem. In fact, more Jews lived outside of Jerusalem than inside. Four notable groups that emerged during this period were the Hebraists, Hellenists, Proselytes, and God Fearers, these communities are specifically mentioned in the Book of Acts, and an understanding of these communities can help one to better understand many of the issues and controversies that developed during the early church. Here's an overview of each group:
Hebraists: The Hebraists, also known as Hebrew-speaking Jews or Hebrews, were Jews who primarily adhered to traditional Jewish customs and practices. They emphasized strict observance of the Mosaic Law and the importance of Hebrew language and culture. They tended to be conservative and resistant to Hellenistic influences.
Hellenists: The Hellenists, also called Greek-speaking Jews or Hellenized Jews, were Jews who had adopted Greek language, culture, and customs to varying degrees. They were influenced by the broader Hellenistic culture, which emerged after Alexander the Great's conquests. Hellenists often sought to integrate Greek philosophy and ideas into their understanding of Judaism. This group tended to be more open to interacting with non-Jews and embracing cultural diversity.
Converts:
Proselytes: Proselytes were Gentiles (non-Jews) who fully converted to Judaism. They underwent a formal conversion process that involved circumcision (for males), a ritual sacrifice at the temple, and immersion in a ritual bath (called mikveh). After conversion, they were considered full members of the Jewish community and were expected to observe the Mosaic Law. Proselytes were typically attracted to Judaism due to its ethical teachings and monotheistic beliefs.
God Fearers: (Acts 10:2,22,35; 13:16,26) God Fearers were Gentiles who were sympathetic to Judaism and its teachings but did not undergo the formal conversion process. They were sometimes referred to as eusebēs or nāḏîḇ "devout" or "noble." There was a wide range of God Fearers. Many lived as if they were Proselytes, but they did not get circumcised because of the significant complication and mortality rates associated with the procedure. While they could not convert without circumcision, many of their wives and children were able to make the transitions. Other God Fearers simply respected the faith and culture. They admired Jewish monotheism and the associated ethical and intellectual principles. Many would frequently attend synagogue services and support Jewish communities; others only attended on occasion. While not fully integrated into Jewish religious life, they were respected by the Jewish community and were often provided with some level of religious instruction.
It's worth noting that these groups were not mutually exclusive, and there were individuals who belonged to multiple categories or transitioned between them. Moreover, the dynamics and interactions between these groups varied across different regions and communities, with unique local influences shaping their beliefs and practices.
Gentiles:
During the time of Christ, the way Jews regarded Gentiles (non-Jews) varied depending on the specific Jewish community and individual perspectives. Here are some general aspects that provide insight into the Jewish attitudes toward Gentiles:
Exclusivity of Covenant: Jews believed they were the chosen people of God and that the covenant between God and Israel set them apart from the Gentiles. This belief emphasized the uniqueness of Jewish identity and religious practices. Some Jews held a strong sense of exclusivity and viewed Gentiles as outsiders who were not part of the divine covenant.
Ritual and Cultural Separation: Jews maintained strict adherence to the Mosaic Law, which included dietary laws, circumcision, observance of the Sabbath/ Feast Days, and other rituals. These practices served as markers of Jewish identity and were seen as essential for maintaining the separation between Jews and Gentiles. Engaging in certain activities or sharing meals with Gentiles was often perceived as ritually impure or culturally inappropriate.
Ethical Standards: Jewish ethics, particularly the ethical teachings found in the Hebrew Bible, emphasized justice, compassion, and righteousness. Some Jews believed that Gentiles who adhered to these ethical principles, known as "righteous Gentiles," would be rewarded by God and could potentially enjoy a place in the world to come. This more inclusive view recognized the possibility of righteousness and moral virtue among Gentiles.
Roman Occupation: In the context of Roman occupation, some Jews had a general suspicion and resentment towards Gentiles due to oppressive rule and cultural clashes. This resulted in a tendency to distance themselves from Gentile practices and influences.
It's important to note that all Jews did not universally hold these attitudes. There were individuals and groups within Judaism, such as the Hellenists and God Fearers, who were more open to engaging with Gentiles and saw the potential for positive interactions and religious understanding.
The teachings of Jesus and the development of early Christianity brought about significant shifts in Jewish-Gentile relations, promoting more inclusive and egalitarian perspectives. The historical names for Gentiles, referring to non-Jews, evolved over time and varied across different cultures and civilizations. Here's a brief summary of some of these terms and how they developed from ancient times to modern day:
Goyim: The term "goyim" is derived from Hebrew and was used in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) to refer to the nations or peoples who were not part of the Israelite community. In the Hebrew Bible, the term was often neutral and simply referred to non-Israelite nations. However, in later Jewish texts, it could sometimes acquire a negative connotation, denoting nations or individuals who were perceived as morally or spiritually inferior.
Ethnikos: The term "ethnikos" comes from Greek and is the root of the English word "ethnic." In ancient Greek culture, it denoted people belonging to different nations or ethnic groups. In the context of early Christianity, "ethnikos" referred to Gentiles or non-Christians. It did not necessarily carry a negative connotation but rather indicated individuals who were not part of the Christian community.
Pagan: The term "pagan" originated from Latin and was primarily used by early Christians to describe individuals who adhered to traditional polytheistic religions. In Latin, "paganus" refers to someone who lived in a rural area or countryside. As Christianity spread, the term gradually took on a negative connotation, as it was associated with non-Christian beliefs and practices. It implied a lack of religious sophistication or adherence to what Christians saw as the "true" faith. Webster's Dictionary 1828
Heathen: The term "heathen" is derived from Old English and has its roots in Germanic languages. It referred to people who practiced polytheistic or animistic religions, often associated with rural or non-urban areas. Like "pagan," "heathen" initially did not carry a strongly negative connotation, but as Christianity became dominant in Europe, it came to be associated with non-Christian and non-civilized beliefs. Webster's Dictionary 1828.
How did the Gentiles view the Jews?
Romans: The Romans, who occupied much of the Mediterranean region during the time of Jesus and the early Christian movement, generally viewed the Jews as a distinct religious and ethnic group within their empire. The Romans allowed the Jews a certain degree of religious autonomy, recognizing their long history and traditions. However, tensions occasionally arose due to clashes between Jewish religious practices and Roman customs, such as the refusal to worship the emperor, whom the Romans regarded as a god.
Greeks and Hellenistic Influences: In regions influenced by Hellenistic culture, the Greeks and other Gentile populations were often exposed to Jewish beliefs and practices. Some Gentiles were attracted to the ethical monotheism of Judaism as well as the historical, philosophical, and scholastic principles, causing them to become sympathetic toward Jews. However, there were also instances of conflict and prejudice, as Greek cultural norms clashed with Jewish religious observances.
Samaritans: The Samaritans, a group with mixed Jewish and Gentile ancestry, were regarded as distinct from both Jews and Gentiles. In previous lessons, we discussed the complicated relations between the Jews and Samaritans, including their integration with the Syrians and Phoenicians.
There were several issues that caused tension between the Gentile nations and the Jewish population. These issues stemmed from differences in religious beliefs, cultural practices, and social norms. Listed are a few notable factors:
Jewish Religious Practices: The Jewish adherence to monotheism and their exclusive worship of Yahweh (Jehovah, God) clashed with the polytheistic religious practices prevalent among the Gentile nations (Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Canaanite, Greek, Etruscan, Roman). The Jews' refusal to participate in the worship of local deities, including Caesar, and their rejection of idolatry was seen as a challenge to the religious and political status quo, which at times provoked hostility.
Temple Worship and Sacrificial System: The central importance of the Jerusalem Temple in Jewish religious life created tension. The Temple was the focal point of Jewish worship and sacrificial rituals. The Romans and other Gentile nations were often perplexed or suspicious of Jewish practices, including animal sacrifices and exclusive access to the inner sanctuary. Rome was very concerned about all religious entities that had exclusive initiation rituals that they did not control.
This caused conflict not only among Jewish and Christian communities but all "mystery cults," such as those found in Greece (Bacchanalia, Eleusinian), Egypt (Cult of Isis), and Persia (Cult of Mithras).
In the past, the term "cult" was used to describe religious or ritualistic groups or practices. Consequently, Judaism and Christianity were once considered cults. However, over the past century, the term has undergone significant transformations in its meaning. In contemporary usage, "cult" has distinct connotations, often referring to a group or belief system that is perceived as extreme, unconventional, or manipulative. It is commonly used to describe religious or cultural movements that challenge the dominant inclinations of society, deviating from mainstream conventions. Consequently, some scholars argue that "by the simplest definition, many, if not all, religious sects originated as cults" (Britannica). When studying ancient history, it is crucial to recognize that the conceptualization of cults differs from modern society's understanding of the term. Scholars will frequently use the term in its ancient context, not intending the negative implications that are present in contemporary society.
The consequences of running afoul of Rome's policies on exclusive ritual practices varied. In some cases, cults faced official bans or restrictions, limiting their activities and forcing them to operate underground or in less public spaces. This was certainly true for Jewish and Christian observers. This was clearly evident with the destruction of the Temple and the systematic expulsion of the language and cultural traditions. Cults that continued to operate faced significant surveillance and scrutiny from Roman authorities, which could lead to arrests, confiscation of property, and severe persecution of their members. The extent of the consequences depended on the perceived threat the cult posed to Roman authority, the degree of political or social unrest, and the prevailing attitudes of the local governors or magistrates. By 400 AD, most of these religious communities had been silenced, frequently through violent means.
Financial matters: The Romans generally perceived the Jews as skilled in financial matters and acknowledged their positive contributions in areas such as accounting, moneylending, banking, and commerce. However, this perception also led to stereotypes and occasional prejudices, as Jewish involvement in financial activities became associated with negative portrayals, including accusations of usury and economic exploitation. There were also issues related to the Temple, such as the collection of temple taxes. After the Romans destroyed the Second Temple in 70 CE, they plundered and looted the Temple's treasures. The Roman general Titus, who led the siege of Jerusalem, reportedly brought various sacred items back to Rome as spoils of war, including the menorah, and other artifacts. These were publically displayed in Rome as symbols of Roman victory and as a demonstration of the might and power of the Roman Empire.
Observance of Jewish Rituals: Jewish practices, including circumcision, dietary laws (kashrut), and Sabbath observance, served to distinguish Jews from the surrounding Gentile cultures. These practices were often perceived by Gentiles as distinct and burdensome, contributing to a sense of separateness and occasionally leading to animosity or misunderstandings. Gentiles, for instance, viewed the observance of the Sabbath and Holy Days as laziness. Unlike Gentiles who didn't take time off from work, Jewish workers adhered to their Sabbath observances, which many Gentile employers tolerated but did not appreciate. Moreover, the strict dietary and prayer schedules followed by Jews were considered disruptive by Gentile employers. Both Greeks and Romans held negative views of circumcision. Greeks found it to be a repugnant mutilation of the body, while Romans viewed it as an emasculating practice. However, other Abrahamic traditions, such as the Samaritans, dispersed Israelites, and Essenes, continued to practice circumcision alongside Judaism.
Cultural Identity and Cultural Clashes: Jewish cultural identity and practices, including distinctive clothing, hairstyles, and customs, often clashed with Gentile cultural norms. This led to tensions and occasional discrimination, particularly in regions heavily influenced by Hellenistic or Roman culture, where conformity to local customs was expected.
Nationalism and Resistance: The Jews' strong nationalistic aspirations, particularly their desire for independence from Roman rule and their belief in a Messiah, led to serious conflicts and uprisings. Jewish resistance movements, such as the Zealots, opposed Gentile political control, further exacerbating tensions and leading to significant acts of violence on both sides. Many Gentiles regarded the Zealots as extremists and terrorists.
Perceptions of Superiority: Some Jews considered themselves the chosen people of God, viewing Gentiles as spiritually inferior or ethnically impure. Gentiles, on the other hand, often saw Jewish exclusivity as a form of religious arrogance or cultural elitism.
Additional Cultural Reading Resources
It's important to note that while these cultural issues contributed to tension, they do not represent the entirety of Jewish-Gentile relations during the New Testament period. There were also instances of mutual respect, cooperation, and positive interactions, particularly among individuals who were open to dialogue and understanding between their respective cultures and religious traditions. Much of what is known about Rome's perceptions of the Jews can be found in the writings of Roman authors such as Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC), Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4 BC-65 AD), Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (69-130 AD), Publius Cornelius Tacitus (56-120 AD), Decimus Junius Juvenalis (50-130 AD), Marcus Valerius Martialis (40-104 AD), Publius Ovidius Naso, or Ovid (43 BC- 17 AD), and Gaius Petronius Arbiter (1st Cent AD) among others.
A few notable writers and treaties from the Jewish/Christian perspective on these topics that are independent of the Biblical canon include Philo of Alexandria (20 BC - 50 AD), Flavius Josephus (37 - 100 AD), Clement of Rome (late 1st century AD), Ignatius of Antioch (c. 35 - c. 107 AD), Papias of Hierapolis (c. 70 - c. 155 AD), Justin Martyr (c. 100 - c. 165 AD), Origen (c. 185 - c. 254 AD), Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 260/265 - c. 339/340 AD), Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius video (c. 480 – 524/525 AD), and Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (late 5th or early 6th century AD), among others. Many of these writers were converts, educated in both pagan and Judeo-Christian philosophies and traditions. Their accounts provide fascinating and valuable insights into the world of the early Church.
Many early editions of these writings are available to view for free on the Internet Archives database at archive.org. Some of these records are written in Greek or Latin, and there are multiple English translations available. Some English versions are even available on Audible. However, one should use caution when examining the various translations, as the perspectives can be biased towards or away from different denominational or cultural preferences. As is always the case with translation, much gets lost in the process. So having a dictionary or concordance on hand can be very helpful. In some cases, the original records in the original languages did not survive. In others, the "original" language was actually translated back from later Latin or Arabic translation, so these writings can get a bit distorted, so that is something to keep in mind. It can take some patience to learn how to navigate these records, but the rewards can be amazing!
Significant Locations
The Locations specified in the Book of Acts have significant cultural and historical value. Learning about these ancient communities can dramatically expand our understanding of Biblical events. There is a lot of information to cover, but I hope you find the results to be beneficial and fruitful.
Tarsus: Located in modern-day Turkey, Tarsus held great significance during the time of Christ. As the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia, Tarsus boasted a thriving intellectual and cultural environment that set it apart. The city's unique position within the Roman Empire was a result of its unwavering loyalty during the tumultuous Mithridatic Wars and subsequent civil conflicts between Pompey and Julius Caesar. In recognition of its allegiance, Tarsus was bestowed the coveted status of a "free city" around 50 BC, accompanied by various privileges such as tax exemptions, substantial autonomy, and special rights and privileges.
This esteemed status, in addition to its strategic location along significant trading routes, propelled Tarsus into economic and cultural prosperity, nurturing an atmosphere conducive to intellectual growth and influence. Notably, the city housed prestigious educational institutions and opportunities, including the renowned University of Tarsus. The university stood out for its focus on philosophy, rhetoric, and liberal arts, attracting students from diverse regions. As a result, Tarsus became a melting pot of ideas, fostering intellectual discourse and a vibrant academic scene. Its scholastic reputation rivaled that of prominent cities like Alexandria and Athens.
Paul, also known as Saul of Tarsus, was born and raised in Tarsus, a city that provided him with numerous advantages. Growing up in Tarsus, Paul received a privileged education that familiarized him with Greek culture, language, and philosophy, encompassing both Hellenistic and Jewish traditions. Notably, as a citizen of Tarsus, Paul also inherited Roman citizenship, a highly esteemed status that granted him legal protections, access to Roman courts, and exemption from certain punishments. This Roman citizenship was instrumental in Paul's ministry, enabling him to travel freely throughout the Roman Empire, even in regions where others faced restrictions. It greatly facilitated his missionary journeys, allowing him to spread the message of Christianity across various territories. Moreover, Paul's Roman citizenship, combined with his educational background, bestowed him with significant credibility and authority. His ability to engage with Greek philosophy and rhetoric, coupled with his deep understanding of Jewish traditions and scriptures, positioned him as an effective communicator who could persuasively reason with both Jewish and Greco-Roman audiences. This unique amalgamation of cultural, intellectual, and legal standing set Paul apart from the other apostles, granting him a distinctive platform and influence in the early Christian movement. Tarsus: A Center of Culture and Learning
Caesarea: Caesarea, constructed by Herod the Great in the first century BCE, held significant strategic importance as a port city located on the eastern Mediterranean coast of Judea. Its relationship with Rome was pivotal, as the city served as the regional capital, housing crucial administrative centers for both Roman and Judean affairs. Its name, Caesarea, was a testament to its allegiance and close ties to Caesar Augustus and the Roman Empire, underscoring its loyalty.
Being an international port hub, Caesarea thrived with a robust Roman presence, comprising military forces, government officials, and bustling trading centers. This pervasive Roman influence left an indelible mark on the region's customs and laws. The city exemplified Roman power and influence, becoming a symbol of Roman presence and control throughout the area.
Caesarea's status as a Roman stronghold and its function as a significant trading port had profound effects on the region's culture and economy. It facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and diverse cultural influences, shaping the local customs and traditions. The Roman presence and influence in Caesarea led to the adoption of Roman practices, laws, and governance systems, profoundly impacting the region's social and legal framework.
Furthermore, the Roman connection of Caesarea provided opportunities for economic prosperity, attracting merchants and traders from different regions. The city became a vibrant cosmopolitan center where various cultures converged, fostering cultural exchange and diversity.
In terms of Christianity, Caesarea gained significance due to its association with important figures and events in early Christian history. Jesus Christ visited Caesarea at least once. This was where Peter proclaimed, "Thou Art the Christ," and we discussed several insights pertaining to Peter's conversion and the cultural significance of the area in that lesson. In this week's lesson, Caesarea is the site of the Roman centurion's conversion. The conversion of Cornelius and his family marked a significant moment in the expansion of Christianity beyond the Jewish community. Caesarea also played a prominent role in the missionary journeys of the Apostle Paul, who visited the city multiple times.
The city's multicultural and cosmopolitan nature, influenced by Roman and Hellenistic cultures, provided an environment where different religious and philosophical ideas could grow, develop, and intermingle. This allowed for the dissemination of Christian teachings and the development and expansion of early Christian communities. Caesarea was home to influential Christian figures, such as Philip the Evangelist and Origen, a renowned Christian theologian and scholar.
Furthermore, Caesarea was an important center for early Christian scholarship and intellectual discourse. It housed a renowned Christian school, led by Origen, which attracted students from various regions and played a crucial role in shaping Christian theology and doctrine.
The strategic location of Caesarea as a major port facilitated the spread of Christianity to other parts of the Mediterranean. Missionaries and Christian travelers could easily embark from Caesarea to different destinations, contributing to the rapid growth and dissemination of Christian ideas throughout the Roman Empire. Caesarea Maritima Overview, Caesarea Philippi, Caesarea Maritima: Holy Spirit Given to the Gentiles, Jewish Encyclopedia
Joppa: Derived from the Hebrew word meaning "beautiful," Joppa was an ancient port city situated on the southwest coast of Palestine, specifically in the region of Judea. Renowned as one of the oldest ports in the world, Joppa has a rich history dating back to ancient times and is believed to have been founded by Japheth, the son of Noah.
Throughout its existence, Joppa served as a vital transportation hub and bustling trade center. Its strategic location facilitated maritime trade and travel routes, connecting various regions and cultures. This positioning made Joppa a pivotal city for commerce, fostering significant exchanges of goods and ideas.
The city held particular importance for the Jewish community due to its role in trade and construction. Joppa served as a key location where the renowned trees of Lebanon were exchanged with Tyre and Egypt, providing the necessary materials for the construction of the Temple and other significant buildings in Jerusalem. This trade route played a vital role in shaping the architectural landscape of Jerusalem and its religious structures.
Joppa also played a prominent role in biblical narratives. It was from Joppa that the prophet Jonah embarked on a ship to Tarshish, attempting to evade his divine mission to Nineveh. This event became a well-known tale symbolizing the struggle between human will and divine guidance.
During the early Christian Church era, Joppa was under Roman control, experiencing a complex political history. In 66 BC, the Roman general Pompey seized control of Joppa from the Hasmonean dynasty, resulting in its separation from the Jewish State. However, in 30 AD, the city was returned to the Herodian government after a brief period under the rule of Cleopatra. This historical background explains why Joppa had a significant Jewish population and held political significance during that time.
Joppa's port served as a formidable competitor to the ports in Caesarea, highlighting its importance as a trade hub. Being a part of the Roman Empire, Joppa adhered to Roman governance and law. The Roman presence in Joppa provided stability for Jewish administrators and facilitated trade and communication within the broader region.
Joppa played a significant and transformative role in the spread of Christianity during the early Church era. In our previous lesson, we explored the story of Peter raising Tabitha from the dead (Acts 9:36-43). According to the account, Peter was staying in Joppa when he received a summons to assist Tabitha, a distinguished disciple known for her charitable work.
In this week's lesson, we learned about another pivotal moment that took place in Joppa in Acts 10 and 11. While Peter was on the roof of Simon the tanner's house, he had a profound vision. Before we get to the vision, there is another point of interest that is worth some attention. Some speculate that Simon the tanner might be the same person as Simon of Cyrene, the foreign man who helped Jesus carry his cross on the way to Calvary. This is an interesting theory.
The location of Peter's vision at Simon the tanner's house adds a layer of complexity to the narrative. The tanning industry involved working with animal hides and utilized practices that were contrary to Kosher standards. These practices were considered ritually impure and there were specific rules that had to be followed in order to be in compliance with the law (Leather Industry & Trade). Peter, being an observant Jew, would have been mindful of maintaining ritual purity and adhering to kosher standards. Therefore, the choice to stay in a house that had a tannery attached raises some questions, especially prior to receiving his vision. Peter's account clearly indicates that he strictly observed Kosher laws, but there appears to be a conflict of interests even before the vision unfolds.
A plausible explanation for this question exists, and it may provide some additional details to help us better understand the context of the narrative. This theory suggests that Simon the tanner might have been a prosperous merchant with multiple properties, and the tannery may or may not have been directly connected to the dwelling where Peter stayed. Rather, the house could have been a residence that Simon used while conducting business in the city. If Simon the tanner was indeed a foreign merchant, it is very possible that he was from Cyrene.
Cyrene was a prosperous trading community located in Northern Africa. It had a longstanding history of trade connections with Jerusalem, Persia, Greece, and other regions. Joppa was a major port along the Cyrene trade route. This connection suggests that Simon might indeed be the same person as Simon of Cyrene, further adding to the intrigue of the story.
In Acts 11:20, the scripture specifically mentions that men from Cyprus and Cyrene traveled to Antioch to preach the gospel of Jesus Christ to the Greeks. This account aligns with the events following Peter's vision described in Acts 10:23, where we learn that certain men from Joppa accompanied Peter. These details provide additional evidence that suggests a potential connection between Simon the tanner and Simon the Cyrene. While these connections offer intriguing possibilities and contextual background, it is important to acknowledge that the available evidence is primarily circumstantial. The historical record does not offer definitive evidence to clearly confirm or refute the claim with absolute certainty.
However, considering the potential connections between Simon the tanner and Simon the Cyrene, one can glean valuable context that helps to shed light on Peter's contemplation of these significant issues in connection with the revelation he received. It provides insights into why Peter may have been wrestling with these matters and why the vision unfolded in the manner that it did.
Simon's house overlooked the Joppa coastline, where ships were sailing in and out of the port. In his vision, Peter witnessed a sail (sheet) descending from the heavens. The sail contained various animals, including those considered common and unclean according to Jewish dietary laws. A voice instructed Peter to kill and eat these animals, but Peter hesitated, citing his adherence to the kosher laws. However, the voice responded, "What God hath made clean, do not call common." The vision was repeated three times, and the vessel was received back up into heaven.
The vision symbolized a broader message about the inclusion of Gentiles in the Christian faith. It challenged the strict adherence to the dietary laws and the traditional separation between Jews and Gentiles, indicating that God no longer considered the Gentiles unclean or excluded from His salvation. His atonement covered all who would accept and follow him, and he was no respecter of persons. This transformative experience dramatically influenced Peter's understanding and acceptance of the Gentile community, paving the way for the spread of the gospel message to the non-Jewish nations. Joppa: Where Peter had a Change of Heart"
Antioch: As the capital of the Roman province of Syria, Antioch played a pivotal role in the Roman Empire. Antioch was a cosmopolitan city with a diverse population, blending Greek, Roman, and Eastern cultures. It was a bustling center of trade and commerce, strategically located on the Orontes River, which facilitated cultural exchange and the dissemination of ideas.
Antioch's value to the Roman Empire was substantial. The city's importance rivaled that of Egypt's chief city in Alexandria, and its strategic location in the heart of the Eastern Empire made it a more suitable headquarters from which Rome could govern. As a valued member of Roman society and its economy, the city was subject to typical Roman governance and law. It served as an administrative center for the region and hosted a significant Roman presence, including military forces, government officials, and cultural hubs such as amphitheaters, hippodromes, bathhouses, and aqueducts. Roman influence in Antioch provided stability to the region and facilitated communication and trade within the broader empire.
From a biblical perspective, Antioch was very important to the Jewish community, as well as the early Christian church. There was a large population of Jews in Antioch by the end of the second century. Josephus even wrote about the splendor of the city and the great synagogue that supported the expansive Jewish community. The city became a crucial hub for the spread of Christianity and played a prominent role in the New Testament. It was in Antioch that followers of Jesus Christ were first referred to as "Christians" (Acts 11:26). This designation is a testament to the city's importance in shaping the early Christian identity as an independent community. Antioch "The Cradle of Christianity"
Antioch was an important location for the Apostle Paul. It was from Antioch that Paul embarked on his missionary journeys, carrying the message of Jesus Christ to different regions. The church in Antioch emerged as a significant hub of Christian activity and missionary work for many to follow. It became a crucial launching pad for the widespread dissemination of the gospel across the Roman Empire and even beyond its borders.
It was in Antioch that Peter was formally recognized as the first bishop, establishing a leadership structure within the growing Christian Church. The city also developed into a renowned center for Christian learning. Building upon the foundation laid by the early church, the Antiochian school of theology was established during the fourth century AD. This institution became an influential entity that helped to shape the future of Christianity.
Because of Antioch's multicultural environment and its connections to various trade routes, the city played an influential role in the culture and development of Christianity. The blending of different cultures and the presence of diverse communities created an environment conducive to the sharing of ideas and the formation of a new entity. Antioch became a melting pot where the teachings of Jesus Christ reached people from different backgrounds, influencing their beliefs, practices, and the expression of their faith. Antioch, Where is Antioch from the Bible?,
Tyre & Sidon: Both Tyre and Sidon were prosperous ancient Phoenician port cities situated along the eastern Mediterranean coast, in what is now Lebanon. Their strategic locations made them crucial centers for trade and commerce, connecting various regions through maritime routes.
Tyre and Sidon had become part of the Roman Empire by the time of the early Christian era. Following Alexander the Great's seizure of Tyre, and the following Seleucid and Punic Wars, Rome eventually captured and executed its dominance over the region.These wars were marked by extreme violence and bloodshed, and as a result, Tyre and Sidon served as examples of Roman might and cruelty in the area. We discussed much of this history in previous lessons, Who were the Phoenicians?
In the Gospels, Jesus specifically references the cities of Tyre and Sidon in Luke 10:13–14 and Matthew 11:20–24. He draws a comparison between these cities and others where He had performed miracles. Despite being privileged with Jesus' presence, preaching, and miraculous power, the cities of Israel, including Chorazin and Bethsaida, had not turned away from their sinful ways in genuine repentance.
Jesus expresses His disappointment and issues warnings, pronouncing woes upon these unrepentant cities. He suggests that if the same miracles had been performed in Tyre and Sidon, these cities would have repented long ago. The implication is that the people of Tyre and Sidon, recognizing the extraordinary signs and wonders, would have responded with acts of humility, mourning, and repentance, symbolized by the use of sackcloth and ashes.
Furthermore, Jesus indicates that the judgment will be more severe for the cities of Israel that rejected His message compared to Tyre and Sidon. This statement highlights the gravity of the rejection of Jesus' teachings and the consequences that await those who remain unrepentant despite witnessing His powerful works.
The encounter between Jesus and the Syrophoenician woman offers additional insight because it demonstrates the underlying tension and prejudice that existed between the Jewish population, the Romans, and the Phoenicians. The Phoenicians were deeply resented by both the Jewish and Roman communities, with many blaming them for the loss of the first Temple and harboring long-standing animosity towards them.
The apostles, who shared in this disdain, initially sought to dismiss the Syrophoenician woman and implored Jesus to reject her. Their reaction reflected the prevalent attitude towards Phoenicians at the time. However, Jesus chose to act differently. He not only received the woman but also commended her for her unwavering faith, highlighting her as an example of great faith (Mark 7:24-30).
This encounter serves as a powerful demonstration of Jesus' teachings, challenging the prejudice and discrimination prevalent within society. By accepting and acknowledging the faith of the Syrophoenician woman, Jesus emphasized the importance of seeing beyond cultural or ethnic boundaries and recognizing the sincere devotion and faith of all individuals, regardless of their background.
The cities of Tyre and Sidon hold specific significance in the materials for this week. In Acts 12, Herod Antipas, known for his involvement in the deaths of John the Baptist, Jesus, and James, visited Tyre and Sidon to deliver a public address. Herod was displeased with Tyre and Sidon due to their alliance with Blastos, who is described as the king's chamberlain. However, some commentators debate whether Blastus may have actually be a faulty transliteration for Beirut.
Regardless of the specific circumstances regarding the character of Blastos, the alliance between Tyre, Sidon, and whoever or whatever Blastus was created a politically tense and hostile environment, necessitating diplomatic efforts to maintain peace in the region. During this period, Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea, delivered a public oration in the midst of the
Phoenician cities. Following the customs of the time, the pagan community elevated Herod's status and proclaimed him to be a god. The community held him in high regard, similar to how the Caesars and Pharaohs were regarded as divine figures. However, this response of attributing divine status to Herod was a problem.
Due to Herod's failure to give glory to God and acknowledge His sovereignty, an angel struck him down, resulting in his untimely death. This event served as a powerful display of God's power and judgment, shaking the community and the surrounding regions. It was a significant moment that not only affected the political landscape but also served as a reminder of the importance of acknowledging and honoring God above earthly rulers.
This public display of God's power had a profound impact on the community and the surrounding regions. It significantly affected the political landscape and power dynamics in the area. News of these events began to spread, and this created many opportunities for conversations, missionary work, and conversions.
Many people throughout Tyre, Sidon, and other traditional Phoenician Port cities, such as Carthage, readily accepted the gospel of Jesus Christ, and these became vibrant Christian communities. The History of Lebanon, The Phoenician cities of Sidon and Tyre, Lebanon Travel Guide
Cyprus: Cyprus held great significance in the ancient world, primarily due to its abundant reserves of copper. During the Bronze Age, copper was a highly sought-after commodity, utilized in various aspects of life, including tools, weapons, art, architecture, currency, and construction materials. The valuable copper resources of Cyprus made it a pivotal location for trade and commerce.
The island's strategic positioning further enhanced its importance as a valuable trading hub. Located in the eastern Mediterranean, Cyprus served as a crossroads connecting different regions, attracting the attention and aspirations of various nations throughout its history. Numerous powers coveted, fought over, and exploited the island, recognizing its economic and geopolitical advantage.
Politically, during the early Christian era, Cyprus was a Roman province. It fell under direct Roman governance, adhering to Roman law and administration. This political connection to Rome helped to stabilize the area and facilitated trade and communication within the broader Roman Empire. Roman rule allowed for the relatively smooth movement of people and ideas, including the spread of Christianity.
Culturally, Cyprus boasted a rich and diverse heritage. Various civilizations, including the Minoans, Greeks, and Phoenicians, had influenced it. The island's cultural landscape reflected a fusion of Hellenistic and Eastern influences. Additionally, Cyprus had a complex relationship with Jewish history, with Jewish communities and traditions present on the island prior to the time of Christ, which continued through the early years of the Christian Church. Several early Christians sought refuge in Cyprus, including Lazarus, and others. Acts 11:19 explains that many Christians fled to the island following Stephen's martyrdom.
The Levite, Barnabas, and his family were originally from Cyprus. Barnabas played a pivotal role in the early Christian community as a beloved friend and missionary companion of Paul and John Mark. The following video provides a beautiful depiction of Barnabas, and I highly recommend watching it.
In Acts 13, Paul and Barnabas embarked on a missionary journey that began in Cyprus. They preached and performed miracles in the city of Paphos, confronting a Jewish sorcerer and converting the Roman proconsul Sergius Paulus to Christianity. During Paul's confrontation with the Jewish sorcerer/magician Elymas (Bar-Jesus), Paul miraculously caused his antagonist to become blind. This was Paul's first recorded miracle, and it made a strong impression on the governor. This event marked a significant turning point in the spread of Christianity in Cyprus and beyond, as it became the first country in the world to be governed by a Christian (Acts 13:9 - 11).
During the Kitos War, also known as the Second Jewish-Roman War, which took place from 115 to 117 AD, a significant event occurred on the island of Cyprus. The Jewish leader Artemion was said to be responsible for the deaths of many Cypriots, with reports suggesting the numbers reached as high as 240,000. In 117 CE, Artemion's forces were ultimately defeated by a Roman army.
Following the defeat of Artemion and his forces, the Roman government responded by enacting laws that prohibited Jews from residing on the island of Cyprus. However, the Christian community continued to remain, and it flourished as a safe haven for Christians. Cyprus continues to be a major hub for the Orthodox Church, and current estimates suggest that 78% of Cyprus' population is Christian, predominantly Greek Orthodox, in spite of its complicated political history with Turkey and members of the Islamic community. (Cyprus: An Island Rich in Christian Tradition)
Videos for further exploration: From Jerusalem to Cyprus: the island of Barnabas, Paul, Lazarus. The History of Cyprus Explained in 10 minutes , The Ancient History of Cyprus (20 min), Tour Ancient Cyprus on Paul's 1st Missionary Journey (extensive 40-minute walking tour),
Perga: Perga is a coastal city on the central southern peninsula of Anatolia. This was where John Mark first split from Paul and Barnabas, overwhelmed by the dangers and demands of the mission. The coast of Perga opens into a difficult mountain route that Paul and Barnabas had to pass through to get to their intended destinations. While there were more conventional routes along established roadways, modern archeological evidence suggests that Paul and Barnabas intentionally chose to pass through the more difficult route to get to Pisidia because there were several Jewish communities that were situated along their path. This would have provided them with the opportunity to rely on the hospitality and safety of local Jewish communities in the area.
Pisidia: Pisidian Antioch, located in western Anatolia, played a significant role in the spread of Christianity. It was this city that the Apostle Paul and his companions visited during the second part of Acts 13. Some scholars suggest that Paul may have been sent to Pisidia at the request of the Cypriot Governor, Sergius Paulus. During their stay, Paul preached in the synagogue, addressing both Jews and God-fearing Gentiles. His message of salvation through faith in Jesus Christ resonated with many, leading to a significant number of conversions among both Jews and Gentiles in the city. When some members of the Jewish became overwhelmed with envy, Paul and Barnabas began to primarily turn their focus to the Gentiles. In spite of the fact that certain members of the Jewish community persecuted and eventually expelled Paul and Barnabas from the city, many within the Gentile communities fully embraced the gospel message, and the congregations multiplied.
Some scholars believe that Pisidia was named Arzawa prior to their takeover by the Hittites. Surrounded by the height of the Taurus Mountains, strong natural defenses fortified Pisidia, and this area served as a bread basket for the ancient world. Fertile valleys combined with a mild temperate climate and regular rainfall made this community an important center for trade.
The establishment of Christian communities in Pisidian Antioch played a crucial role in the early development of the Christian church, as these communities became centers for worship, teaching, and fellowship. The formation of the Christian communities in Pisidian had a ripple effect, as believers carried their faith and shared the message of salvation with others in neighboring regions. The impact of Pisidian Antioch extended beyond its immediate boundaries, contributing to the growth and expansion of Christianity in Asia Minor and beyond. Real Places: Antioch of Pisidia
Iconium: The city of Ancient Iconium, known by its modern Greek name Konya, holds a significant historical presence as one of the oldest urban centers in the ancient world. Its origins can be traced back to the 3rd millennium BC, making it an ancient and enduring city. According to Phrygian legend, Konya was the first city to emerge after a catastrophic flood that devastated humanity.
The word "icon" in English finds its etymological roots in the name Ikón, associated with Ikonya. This is rather interesting because Ikón means "image, likeness, and figure," and Yah is an abbreviation for Jehovah. While this etymology might initially seem like a stretch, especially considering the distance between Israel and Turkey and the differences in the language families, there is some history that might give this interpretation some credibility.
Situated in central Anatolia, Konya underwent a process of Hellenization during the 3rd century BC, following the decline of ancient Phrygia. This transformation resulted in Konya becoming a self-governing city deeply influenced by the Greek language, education, and culture. This Greek influence shaped various aspects of the city's identity, including many traditions that are still with us today.
To my fellow musicians out there, Phrygia is where the term for the "Phrygian mode" came from, as Phrygia was a community known for its strong musical history. In fact, several of the modal names were derived from this area. Ionian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Aeolian, and Locrian.
These names of the musical modes are associated with early Christian histories and liturgical practices that originated from Paul's missionary journeys. Our current lesson focuses on exploring the significance of some of these regions, particularly Phrygia, Pisidia, and Galatia in the context of early Christian history.
The Galatian community, depicted in the book of Galatians, played a significant role in an early liturgical system known as the Gallican rite. These early traditions had a profound influence on the development of later musical traditions, including the Gregorian Church modes, which were closely related to the Byzantine Church modes. These musical traditions, shaped by the early Christian and Jewish communities, ultimately influenced the development of our modern Western modal system.
The Phrygian mode is often associated with a unique musical flavor that has been described by some as "warlike." However, this has led to misconceptions about the Phrygians being an aggressive community. In reality, these names primarily represent characteristic musical styles and flavors originating from different areas and traditions. The Phrygian mode has a distinctive Eastern quality, and it is highly versatile. A notable element in the Phrygian mode is its lowered second-scale degree, which is a distinct feature shared with modern Hebraic Klezmer music and Eastern Arabic maqam. In Yiddish tradition, this scale is sometimes referred to as the "Phrygish scale," as it is a modified Phrygian dominant scale influenced by ancient Byzantine and Eastern musical traditions.
Legend claims that the Phrygian king Midas, renowned for his "golden touch," was purportedly taught music by Orpheus himself, at least according to mythological accounts. This tale highlights the significant role music played within the Phrygian community and the influential reputation it held worldwide. Notably, Phrygia contributed to musical innovation with the invention of the aulos, a reed instrument featuring two pipes that gained popularity in Greece and beyond. Even the apostle Paul mentions this instrument specifically in 1 Corinthians 14:7, illustrating its familiarity and cultural significance.
Iconium and the surrounding areas blended Christianity with the cultural influences of Greece and Jerusalem, and this played a significant role in the development of artistic iconography and musical traditions within the early church. It is intriguing to contemplate the impact these influences had on the artistic expression and worship practices of the time.
From a historical perspective, the Jewish community traditionally refrained from creating physical depictions of God in any form, considering such icons as idolatry, par the First and Second Commandments. However, as the Christian church expanded and embraced Greek converts and influences, there emerged a shift in artistic expression. Religious icons and artistic depictions began to emerge, celebrating Christ, and influential figures of the faith, in addition to depicting scenes from biblical narratives.
These religious icons served as powerful memorials, representing and commemorating the saints and their contributions to the Christian faith. They became instrumental in teaching and spreading the gospel message to believers and non-believers alike. The visual representations, through their artistic beauty and symbolism, conveyed profound spiritual messages and inspired devotion among the faithful.
The traditions continued to spread beyond Iconium and began to reflect the diverse cultural influences of the communities they came in contact with. This marked a significant departure from the Jewish tradition of avoiding physical depictions and paved the way for the development of a rich visual and musical heritage throughout the Christian world.
In addition, iconography and music served other important functions. Books and scrolls were expensive and time-consuming to reproduce. The printing press had yet to be invented (mid-1500s). Therefore, these communities had limited access to written records. Furthermore, illiteracy was widespread among the impoverished populations. In such circumstances, iconography and music played crucial roles in connecting people to scriptural stories and doctrine. These artistic forms became powerful tools within church congregations and beyond, enabling communities to engage with their histories and faith.
Iconography, in particular, played a significant role in facilitating understanding and remembrance of important narratives and figures from scripture. This visual medium allowed individuals, including those who were illiterate, to grasp and recall key teachings. Iconic images served as visual representations and storytelling devices, preserving and transmitting doctrine to the community at large.
Similarly, music played a vital role in the preservation and transmission of history, tradition, and doctrine, especially among illiterate communities. Musical oral recitations, such as chants, became integral parts of the liturgical traditions of various Christian denominations. The use of chant allowed the faithful to engage with the stories and teachings of the saints through melodic and rhythmic expressions. Orthodox churches, for example, continue to employ detailed chants that narrate the lives and experiences of the saints, maintaining an oral tradition that has endured for centuries, if not millennia.
These musical traditions, passed down through generations, form an essential part of the liturgical worship experience and contribute to the preservation of histories and faith within the community. They serve as a living connection to the early Christian practices, offering a sense of continuity and cultural identity that spans centuries.
Music and iconography served as powerful mnemonic tools that aided communities in remembering important concepts and events. This reliance on musical traditions can be observed throughout history, including among the Ancient Israelites. In the oldest complete renditions of the Hebrew Tanakh, every single word is accompanied by cantillation markings, emphasizing the deep connection between music and scripture.
Given the scarcity and value of written records during that time, the Levite priests had the crucial responsibility of memorizing the Torah. They would then travel among the various camps of Israel to recite its teachings. The words "minister" and "minstrel" reflect this connection, as "minister" combines "minister" with "El," and "minstrel" relates to the ancient Hebraic cognates Shir "sing, singer, through the idea of strolling mintrelsy" and Shirath "minister, serve, attend to, wait upon, and temple worship."
The medieval troubadours were even said to have learned their craft in the Holy Land, during the Crusades. The Greek name for the Hebrew cantillation markings is "trope," and this was where the name troubador was derived, via the Latin tropare, "to find, compose" tropes "way, manner, mode," and Greek τρόπος (G5158 way, manner, course, ὁδός). The Levites fulfilled their priestly duties through song and ministering through music both at the Temple and within the camps and communities of Israel.
Music played a pivotal role in aiding priests in several ways.
Memorization: The musical structure helped the priests memorize lengthy passages of scripture, it was not uncommon for some to even memorize the entire body of the Tanakh.
Delivery: The act of delivering these scriptures through musical oration allowed the priests to project the message to larger audiences, particularly in crowded synagogues and marketplaces where acoustics were less than ideal.
Retention: This method of delivery also facilitated the learning and memorization of stories among communities, especially among those who were illiterate.
Music served as a valuable technology, enabling the transmission of scripture, facilitating communal learning, and enhancing the preservation of cultural and religious heritage. The combination of melody, rhythm, and lyrics in song created a powerful means of communication and engagement, allowing the teachings and stories of the scriptures to be embedded within the hearts and minds of the community.
Music and iconography emerged as traditions that blended the rich history of the Greeks with their newfound faith in Christ. These traditions were developed by a community faithfully trying to remember their history and convey what mattered most to them. Through iconography, the stories of Christ, the saints, and biblical events were visually depicted, serving as reminders of the central teachings and values of the Christian faith. Music provided a melodic and lyrical avenue for the community to express devotion, contemplate theological concepts, and unite in sacred worship.
The integration of Greek cultural elements into early Christian traditions allowed for a unique and nuanced way of communicating and experiencing faith. These traditions originated from a genuine desire to honor and remember their history and beliefs. Despite later opposition and schisms, these traditions reflect the enduring human need to express and preserve faith through diverse means, incorporating cultural elements to enhance spiritual experiences.
Today, music and iconography continue to shape and inspire Christian communities worldwide, throughout all cultures and denominations. These traditions stand as an enduring witness of faith and tradition, demonstrating the deep-rooted desire of believers to convey the significance of God's word and his Law.
These traditions also testify of the powerful and enduring testimonies expressed by our Christian and Jewish forbearers. So, in many ways one can observe the legacy of Ikonia as a symbol of "the likeness and image of Jehovah."
Lystra and Derbe: These cities were both satellite communities of Iconium. While in Lystra, located approximately 19 miles south of Konya, Paul healed a man who had been unable to walk since birth. When the people saw the miracle, they called Barnabas Jupiter and Paul Mercurius, or Hermes. These were Roman deities derived from the Greek Zeus and Aries. While Barnabas and Paul immediately tried to correct the error, this riled up the Jewish community; it was here that significant opposition began to intensify. Several angered Jews gathered from Iconium and Antioch, and they confronted and stoned Paul. Believing that they had successfully killed him, the perpetrators dragged his lifeless body outside of the city walls and left him for dead. However, Paul was not dead, and the next day he and Barnabas left for Derby.
Lystra was colonized in 6 BC, and later incorporated into the Roman province of Galatia. Paul would later visit Lystra on his second missionary tour, and it was here that a young disciple named Timothy became a companion of Paul and Silas. The epistles of 1st and 2nd Timothy were believed to have been addressed to this disciple while he was serving in Ephesus, although some modern scholars dispute the accuracy of this assertion, believing the letters may have been written by someone other than Paul, who wrote the letter posthumously in Paul's memory, as was a typical custom of the time. These scholars debate that due to the literary composition of the letters and specific references used in them, they were probably written during the late 1st century or the first part of the 2nd century, after Paul's death.
As mentioned previously, book of Galatians was addressed to this community, as Lystra was incorporated into Galatia. The Galatians were receptive to Paul's message about a male deity who offered salvation through belief in his son because it closely aligned with their Phrygian legends of Sabiazos and Cybele. These were resurrection legends that were already familiar to the community.
This historical context sheds light on the strong reaction and the seriousness of the misunderstandings that arose when the people mistakenly identified Paul and Barnabas as Mercury and Jupiter. In Phrygian mythology, Sabiazos was revered as a "sky god" and closely linked to the Greek Zeus, the Roman equivalent of Jupiter (dues + pater, "heavenly father," θεῖος πατήρ). Similarly, Mercury corresponded to Hermes, the messenger god. Since Paul was delivering the message, the people made what they believed to be a logical connection.
Moreover, Zeus' son Hercules was associated with an Anatolian story of a savior figure who would one day come to redeem the people. This narrative likely had connections to the Phrygian legend of Attis, further contributing to the confusion and mistaken identification. These cultural and mythological references influenced the people's perceptions and reactions to Paul and Barnabas, as they tried to make sense of the message being delivered.
In many ways, the Phrygian mythologies closely align with the religious and mythological traditions of the Phoenicians. These legends had been perpetuated among the communities of Greece for hundreds of years. After all, it was the Phoenicians who introduced the Greeks to the alphabet and principles of literacy around 800 BC. Herodotus states that it was a Phoenician prince named Cadmus, the legendary founder of Thebes, who first introduced the alphabet to the Greek communities. He also explains that this was where many of their mythologies were derived.
So these Phoenicians, including the Gephyraians, came with Kadmos and settled this land [Boeotia], and they transmitted much lore to the Hellenes, and in particular, taught them the alphabet which, I believe, the Hellenes did not have previously, but which was originally used by all Phoenicians. With the passage of time, both the sound and the shape of the letters changed (Herodotus, 5.58)
There are so many similarities and overlaps between Phoenician and Greek mythology, it appears that they were at one point the same thing. But over time, different communities used different names for various deities, slightly altering the stories to conform with their own nationalistic themes and agendas. This is the same pattern one observes with Roman deities that were adopted from Greek traditions.
As discussed in previous lessons, the Phoenician religion had strong connections with Ancient Israel. The Phoenicians had been important allies with King David and Solomon, they built both the first and second temples. As such, the Israelite and Phoenician cultures and religions shared many of the same subjects and themes. Only the Phoenician versions had become significantly corrupted through idol worship and priestcraft, as was depicted in the Old Testament accounts of Baal and Asherah (Astarte).
According to Josephus, in his account of the Antiquity of the Jews (p.200), Hiram, the king of Tyre, built the temples of Hercules, Astarte, and Jupiter, in addition to the temples in Jerusalem. Several records indicate that the Jewish communities had historical connections with these temples. An account in 2 Maccabees 4:18-20 explains that a corrupted High Priest named Jason, sent Antiochian Jews as envoys to Tyre to offer sacrifices to Hercules.
18 Once when the king was present at the athletic games they held every five years in Tyre,
19 the evil Jason sent residents of Jerusalem who were now citizens of Antioch as his envoys, carrying three hundred silver drachmen[b] for the sacrifice to Hercules. Because it was inappropriate, the envoys didn’t think it was right to use these funds for sacrifice. Instead, they applied the expense to something else.
20 So although Jason designated this sum as a sacrifice to Hercules, the envoys spent it on equipping warships.
Scholars have clearly demonstrated that contact between the Greek and Semitic communities dates back to ancient Minoan and Mycenaean times, and there are multiple literary and archaeological data to support that fact (Hellenistic Judaism).
The relationships that exist between Greek legends and Semitic history had profound influences throughout the Mediterranean, especially as Jewish and Israelite tribes spread across the globe during the diasporas. Therefore, while there were significant issues and misunderstandings that reached a dramatic peak in Lystra, Paul's teachings were not foreign. These communities were acquainted with the prophecies, even if they were confused. Paul's message had a powerful impact because it aligned with the people's expectations; they were also looking forward to a prophesied Messiah, even though by that time, their concepts of that Messiah drastically differed from Jewish tradition.
Acts 17:16-34 supports this broader Messianic expectation, as Paul uses the same reasoning with the people of Athens, explaining that their "unknown god" was actually Jesus Christ. Scholars note that the Christian communities that were derived from the areas of Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derby grew into one of the most vital Christian centers of the region. Although in time, the churches and cathedrals would later be converted to mosques during the rise and conquests of Islam.
Major Topics & Events
Major Events/ Topics | Location & approximate date | Scripture Source | Cross-reference | Videos/ Resources |
Cornelius's Vision and Peter's Vision | Caesarea, Late 30s or early 40's AD | Acts 10:1-8 INT | Acts 10 INT | |
Introduction to Cornelius, a devout God-Fearing Roman centurion | Caesarea | Verses 1-2 | | |
Cornelius's vision of an angel instructing him to send for Peter. | Caesarea to Joppa | Verses 3-6 | | |
Cornelius sends two servants and a devout soldier to find Peter | Caesarea to Joppa | Verses 7-8 | | |
Peter's Vision of the Clean and Unclean Animals | Joppa | Acts 10:9-23a INT | | |
Peter's vision of a sheet (a sail) descending from heaven with various animals and a voice instructing him to kill and eat | Joppa | Verses 9-16 | | |
Peter's confusion and the arrival of Cornelius's men | Joppa | Verses 17-23a | | |
Peter's Visit to Cornelius | Joppa to Caesarea | Acts 10:23b-48 INT | | |
Peter welcomes Cornelius's men and prepares to go with them | Joppa to Caesarea | Verses 23b-26 | | |
Peter explains his initial hesitation to go with the Gentiles | Caesarea | Verses 27-29 | | |
Cornelius explains his vision and readiness to receive Peter's message | Caesarea | Verses 30-33 | | |
Peter's realization that God shows no partiality and accepts people from all nations | Caesarea | Verses 34-35 | | |
Peter's preaching of the gospel, emphasizing Jesus's ministry, death, and resurrection | Caesarea | Verses 36-43 | | |
The outpouring of the Holy Spirit on Cornelius and his household, prompting Peter to baptize them | Caesarea | Verses 44-48 | | |
Peter's Report to the Jerusalem Church | Jerusalem, Late 30s or early 40's AD | Acts 11:1-18 INT | | Acts 11 INT |
Criticism and questioning from the Jewish believers in Jerusalem | Jerusalem | Verses 1-3 | | |
Peter recounts his experience, emphasizing the divine intervention and the inclusion of the Gentiles | Jerusalem | Verses 4-17 | | |
The Jerusalem believers respond with acceptance and praise for God's work | Jerusalem | Verses 18 | | |
Major Events/ Topics | Location & approximate date | Scripture Source | Cross-reference | Videos/ Resources |
The Church in Antioch | Antioch, Late 30s or early 40's AD | Acts 11:19-26 INT | | |
The scattering of believers from Jerusalem due to persecution | Antioch | Verses 19-21 | | |
Barnabas sent to Antioch and his witness to the work of God | Antioch | Verses 22-24 | | |
Barnabas brings Paul from Tarsus, and both of them teach and disciple the believers in Antioch | Antioch | Verses 25-26 | | |
Relief for Judea | Antioch and Judea, Late 40's AD | Acts 11:27-30 INT | | |
Prophets from Jerusalem visit Antioch, and one of them predicts a famine | | Verses 27-28 | | |
The believers in Antioch send financial relief to the believers in Judea | | Verses 29-30 | | |
James Killed and Peter Imprisoned | Jerusalem, around 44-46 AD | Acts 12:1-5 INT | | Acts 12 INT |
King Herod Agrippa I persecutes the believers and kills James, the brother of John, with the sword. | | Verses 1-2 | | |
Peter is arrested and put into prison | | Verses 3-4 | | |
The believers gather to pray for Peter's release | | Verses 5 | | |
Peter's Miraculous Escape | Jerusalem, around 44-46 AD | Acts 12:6-19 INT | | |
An angel appears to Peter in prison, releases his chains, and leads him out of the prison | | Verses 6-11 | | |
Peter goes to the house of Mary, the mother of John Mark, where believers are gathered in prayer. He recounts his miraculous escape to them. | | Verses 12-17 | | |
The guards are astonished and executed, and Peter leaves Jerusalem. | | Verses 18-19 | | |
Herod's Death | Tyre and Sidon, around 44-46 CE | Acts 12:20-23 INT | | |
Herod addresses people in Tyre and Sidon, and they acclaim him as a god. Herod does not give glory to God, and an angel strikes him down, causing his death. | | Verses 20-22 | | |
The word of God spreads and grows | | Verses 23 | | |
Major Events/ Topics | Location & approximate date | Scripture Source | Cross-reference | Videos/ Resources |
The Commissioning of Barnabas and Saul | Antioch, around 46-47 AD | Acts 13:1-3 INT | | Acts 13 INT |
In the church at Antioch, the Holy Spirit sets apart Barnabas and Saul for a special mission. | Antioch | Verses 1-2 | | |
After fasting and prayer, they are sent off by the church, accompanied by John Mark. | Antioch | Verse 3 | | |
Preaching in Cyprus | Cyprus, around 46-47 AD | Acts 13:4-12 INT | | |
Barnabas, Saul, and John Mark sail to Cyprus. | Cyprus | Verses 4-5 | | |
They encounter a Jewish sorcerer named Bar-Jesus (Elymas) and encounter the proconsul, Sergius Paulus. | Cyprus | Verses 6-7 | | |
Saul, filled with the Holy Spirit, confronts Elymas and blinds him, leading the proconsul to believe. | Cyprus | Verses 8-12 | Alma 30:43-60 Korihor is cursed and becomes unable to speak, similar to the Elymas being blinded. | |
Preaching in Pisidian Antioch | Pisidian Antioch, around 47-48 AD | Acts 13:13-52 INT | | |
Barnabas, Saul, and John Mark travel to Pisidian Antioch and go to the synagogue on the Sabbath day. | Pisidian | Verses 13-15 | | |
Paul delivers a sermon to the people, recounting Israel's history, emphasizing Jesus as the fulfillment of the promises, and calling for repentance and belief in Him. | Pisidian | Verses 16-41 | | |
The response of the people, the spreading of the message, and the opposition from the Jews. | Pisidian | Verses 42-52 | | |
Preaching in Iconium | Iconium, around 47-48 AD | Acts 14:1-7 INT | | Acts 14 INT |
Paul and Barnabas go to the synagogue in Iconium and preach, leading to both Jews and Greeks believing. | Iconium | Verses 1-2 | | |
The opposition from unbelieving Jews and Gentiles, and the decision of Paul and Barnabas to move on to other cities. | Iconium | Verses 3-7 | | |
Preaching in Lystra and Derbe | Lystra and Derbe, around 47-48 AD | Acts 14:8-23 INT | | |
Paul performs a miraculous healing in Lystra, leading the people to believe he and Barnabas are gods. | Lystra and Derbe | Verses 8-10 | | |
Paul's response, urging the people to turn from idols to the living God. | Lystra and Derbe | Verses 11-18 | | |
The opposition and stoning of Paul in Lystra, his recovery, and the continuation of their journey to Derbe. | Lystra and Derbe | Verses 19-23 | | |
Major Events/ Topics | Location & approximate date | Scripture Source | Cross-reference | Videos/ Resources |
Return to Antioch | On the road to Antioch, around 48 AD. | Acts 14:24-28 INT | | |
Paul and Barnabas pass through various cities, strengthening the believers and appointing elders. | On the road to Antioch | Verses 24-25 | | |
They sail back to Antioch, reporting to the church and sharing about their journey. | Antioch | Verses 26-28 | | |
The Conflict over Circumcision | Antioch, around 49-50 | Acts 15:1-5 INT | | Acts 15 INT |
Men from Judea teach that Gentile believers must be circumcised according to the Law of Moses. | Antioch | Verses 1-2 | | |
Paul and Barnabas engage in debate and discussion with these men, leading to a decision to bring the matter before the apostles and elders in Jerusalem. | Antioch | Verses 3-5 | | |
The Council at Jerusalem | Jerusalem, around 49-50 AD | Acts 15:6-21 INT | | |
The apostles and elders gather in Jerusalem to discuss the matter of circumcision. | Jerusalem | Verses 6-11 | | |
Peter, Paul, and Barnabas testify to the work of the Holy Spirit among the Gentiles, and James offers a resolution to not burden Gentile believers with the requirement of circumcision. | Jerusalem | Verses 12-21 | | |
The Letter to the Gentile Believers | Jerusalem and Antioch, around 49-50 AD | Acts 15:22-35 INT | | |
The apostles, elders, and the whole church select representatives (Judas and Silas) to accompany Paul and Barnabas back to Antioch with a letter. | Jerusalem and Antioch | Verses 22-23 | | |
The contents of the letter affirming that Gentile believers are not obligated to be circumcised, but they should abstain from certain practices. | Jerusalem and Antioch | Verses 24-29 | | |
The messengers deliver the letter to the believers in Antioch, encouraging and strengthening them. | Jerusalem and Antioch | Verses 30-35 | | |
Disagreement between Paul and Barnabas | Antioch | Acts 15:36-41 INT | | |
Paul and Barnabas have a disagreement over whether to take John Mark on their missionary journey, resulting in their separation. | Antioch | Verses 36-39 | | |
Paul chooses Silas as his companion and departs for the journey, while Barnabas takes John Mark and goes to Cyprus. | Antioch (Barnabas to Cyprus) | Verses 40-41 | | |
Church Videos & Resources
Scripture Central
Some of the links on the Scripture Central website were not working, so I included those and added a few additional resources to their reading list below:
Commentary on Acts
Lynne Hilton Wilson, "Acts 10–15," Come Follow Me: The New Testament, 2019. Come, Follow Me Commentary: The New Testament (Second Edition) 2023.
J. Philip Schaelling, “The Western Text of the Book of Acts: a Mirror of the Doctrinal Struggles in the Early Christian Church,” in Apocryphal Writings and the Latter-day Saints, ed. C. Wilfred Griggs (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University, 1986), 155–72.
Cultural Perspectives pertaining to the Jerusalem Council and Peter’s Revelation
Grant Adamson, "Greco-Roman Religion and the New Testament," in New Testament History, Culture, and Society: A Background to the Texts of the New Testament, ed. Lincoln H. Blumell (Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2019), 194-209.
Jared T. Parker, “Cutting Covenants,” in The Gospel of Jesus Christ in the Old Testament, The 38th Annual BYU Sidney B. Sperry Symposium (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University, 2009).
Taylor Halverson, “The Role and Purpose of Synagogues in the Days of Jesus and Paul,” Interpreter: A Journal of Latter-day Saint Faith and Scholarship 34 (2020): 41-52.Thomas A. Wayment, “Peter, Cornelius, and Cultural Boundaries,” in The Ministry of Peter, the Chief Apostle, ed. Frank F. Judd Jr., Eric D. Huntsman, and Shon D. Hopkin (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2014), 211–26.
Frank F. Judd Jr., “The Jerusalem Conference: The First Council of the Christian Church,” Religious Educator 12, no. 1 (2011): 55–71.
Jared W. Ludlow, “The Book of Acts: A Pattern for Modern Church Growth,” in Shedding Light on the New Testament: Acts–Revelation, ed. Ray L. Huntington, Frank F. Judd Jr., and David M. Whitchurch (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University, 2009), 1–29.
Robert J. Matthews, “The Jerusalem Council,” in Sperry Symposium Classics: The New Testament, ed. Frank F. Judd Jr. and Gaye Strathearn (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2006), 254–266.
Spencer W. Kimball, “Always a Convert Church: Some Lessons to Learn and Apply This Year,” Ensign, September 1975.
Edward L. Kimball, "Spencer W. Kimball and the Revelation on the Priesthood," BYU Studies, Vol. 47, no.2.
Robert J. Matthews, “A Crisis, a Council, and Inspired Leadership,” Ensign, October 1995.
Richard Lloyd Anderson, “The Church and the Roman Empire,” Ensign, September 1975.
Ann N. Madsen, “Cameos: The Women of the New Testament,” Ensign, September 1975. Website: Women in the Scriptures
Catherine Gines Taylor, "Women and the World of the New Testament," in New Testament History, Culture, and Society: A Background to the Texts of the New Testament, ed. Lincoln H. Blumell (Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2019), 514–31.
Peter and Paul
John Hilton III, “Peter as a Learner and Teacher,” Religious Educator 20, no. 2 (2019): 84–103.
Wilford C. Griggs, “Paul: The Long Road from Damascus,” Ensign, September 1975.
Ted L. Gibbons, “Paul as a Witness of the Work of God,” in Go Ye into All the World: Messages of the New Testament Apostles, 31st Annual Sidney B. Sperry Symposium (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2002), 27–40.
J. Peter Hansen, “Paul the Apostle: Champion of the Doctrine of the Resurrection,” in Go Ye into All the World: Messages of the New Testament Apostles, 31st Annual Sidney B. Sperry Symposium (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2002), 13–26.
Andrew C. Skinner, “New Testament Minute: Acts” in Go Ye into All the World: Messages of the New Testament Apostles, 31st Annual Sidney B. Sperry Symposium (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2002), 187–219.
Gaye Strathearn, “Fallible but Faithful: How Simon the Fisherman Became Peter the Rock,” in The Ministry of Peter, the Chief Apostle, ed. Frank F. Judd Jr.,Eric D. Huntsman, and Shon D. Hopkin (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2014), 226–46.
The Bible Project
BYU’s RSC
Video Tours of the Holy Land & Key Sites
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