Who were the Phoenicians?
The Phoenicians, an ancient Semitic civilization that thrived along the coastal regions of present-day Lebanon, Syria, and Israel from 1500 BCE to 300 BCE, often remain overlooked in history. However, their contributions and influences were far-reaching, shaping not only their own society but also the broader Mediterranean region. The Phoenicians were renowned traders, seafarers, and skilled craftsmen, leaving an indelible mark on various aspects of human civilization. Despite their profound significance, the Phoenician story remains relatively unknown to many. In this summary, we will delve into some of the rich history and remarkable achievements of the Phoenicians, shedding light on their pivotal role in Biblical history as we investigate the effects of their lasting legacy.
A few well-known Phoenicians:
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King Hiram of Tyre: Close friend and ally with King David. King Hiram helped to collect the resources for Solomon’s Temple and provided a majority of the workforce to build it. (1 Kings 5 INT, 9 INT )
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Hiram, the “widow’s son”: Chief Architect of Solomon’s Temple; “trained after the manner of his father,” a Phoenician. (1 Kings 7:14-47 INT; 1 Chr 14 INT; 2 Chronicles 2 INT, 3 INT)
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Over 600,000 builders of both the First and Second Temples.
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The Sidonian widow who gave Elijah her last meal. Elijah raised her son from the dead (1 Kings 17:9 INT).
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Christ specifically mentions Naaman, “the Syrian” (2 Kings 5 INT) and the Phoenician widow who fed Elijah in Luke 4:27 INT.
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Queen Jezebel, Ahab’s wife, and the priests of Ba’al.
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The Syrophoenician woman who asks Christ to heal her daughter. (Mark 7:24-30 and Matt 15)
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The Woman at the Well holds a significant place in the Biblical accounts as well as in Phoenician history, and her story extends beyond the pages of Scripture. Known as Photina in Greek records, her name carries symbolic meaning, derived from the words "photon" meaning "light" and "Yah," her name represents a "reflection/particle of Jehovah's light." In Orthodox records, it is documented that Photina embarked on a journey to Carthage, a city with deep historical ties to the Phoenicians, who were referred to as the Punic people during that time. Carthage, a remnant of Phoenician influence, had served as a refuge for many Phoenician survivors following the destruction of their prominent city, Tyre, in 332 BC.
The city of Carthage would later endure its own set of tragedies and trials during the Punic Wars, but by the time of Christ, a resilient community of Phoenician remnants rebuilt the city. Photina, driven by her faith and conviction, played a pivotal role in spreading the teachings of Christ within Carthage's boundaries. Her missionary efforts contributed to the growth and development of Christianity, not only within Carthage but also beyond its borders, impacting the world at large.
The historical context surrounding the Phoenicians and their connections to and assimilations with the Samaritan community adds depth to Photina's story. Over the course of history, many Phoenicians integrated into the Samaritan population, a group consisting of Israelites who had intermarried with the Assyrians and Phoenicians. Photina's presence in Carthage further connected these threads of cultural and religious integration, bridging the gaps between the Samaritans, Phoenicians, and their shared heritage.
Despite her profound impact, Photina's journey was not without immense suffering. During her time in Carthage, she encountered the wrath of Emperor Nero of Rome, who subjected her to brutal torture and ultimately sentenced her to death. Nero's cruelty intentionally reached its peak as he callously threw Photina's disfigured remains down a well shaft. As one of the earliest martyrs for the Christian faith, Photina's tragic fate exemplifies the courage and unwavering commitment she displayed as a disciple of Christ in the face of intense persecution.
The story of Photina, the Woman at the Well, reflects the interconnectedness of history, faith, and the struggles faced by early Christian communities. Her association with Carthage, a city tied to Phoenician heritage, highlights the enduring influence of the Phoenician civilization. Through her missionary endeavors and her ultimate sacrifice, Photina played a significant role in the expansion of Christianity and the preservation of its teachings.
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Mulek's mother:
According to several LDS scholars, Mulek's mother, who was one of King Zedekiah's wives, is believed to have had Phoenician origins, potentially hailing from the city of Sidon (Christensen). In the Book of Mormon, it is recounted that when Nebuchadnezzar invaded Babylon and killed King Zedekiah's sons, one son managed to escape. Various theories suggest that the Phoenicians might have played a role in this escape. One hypothesis proposes that Mulek's mother, being Phoenician, could have been in Phoenicia or pregnant during the siege, and she and the child found a way to flee the danger.
This theory gains support from the idea that loyal Phoenician sailors, utilizing their advanced naval technology, might have transported Mulek to the Americas for his safety. The connection to the Phoenicians is further strengthened by the fact that the Mulekites, as recorded in the Book of Mormon, named a river in Zarahemla "Sidon." Sidon was a significant Phoenician port city, and it was common for the people in the Book of Mormon to name their cities after places familiar to them in the Near East.
This Phoenician association sheds light on the potential connections between the Old World and the Americas as described in the Book of Mormon. It suggests that Phoenician sailors, with their maritime expertise, may have played a role in the migration of people to the Americas and influenced the naming of locations. Exploring these possibilities provides insights into the Book of Mormon narrative and the historical context surrounding the migration and settlement of ancient peoples in the Americas.
While these theories are speculative, they offer intriguing perspectives on the role of the Phoenicians and the possible connections between the Old World and the Americas. They contribute to a broader understanding of the intricate tapestry of cultures and civilizations depicted in the Book of Mormon, highlighting the influence of ancient Phoenician culture on the narrative and adding depth to our exploration of the history and origins of the people described in the scripture.
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Pythagoras, the renowned 5th-century scholar, had a fascinating heritage that intertwined both Greek and Phoenician roots. While his mother was Greek, his father was a highly successful Phoenician merchant from the city of Tyre. Historical records shed light on Pythagoras' intriguing journey, even placing him in Babylon during the construction of the Second Temple.
These records highlight that Pythagoras had the unique opportunity to receive education and tutelage under the guidance of both the prophets of Moses and the Magi. This diverse exposure to different traditions and teachings shaped his intellectual pursuits and philosophical interests. Particularly, the records emphasize Pythagoras' profound curiosity and reverence for the arcane, which included aspects related to the Ark of the Covenant. They suggest that he had undergone initiation into the Temple rites of the Phoenicians, further enriching his understanding of their religious practices.
The convergence of Greek and Phoenician influences in Pythagoras' upbringing and education contributed to his multifaceted approach to knowledge and the development of modern scholastics. His studies encompassed various fields, ranging from mathematics and astronomy to music, mysticism, and spirituality. The interplay between his Greek heritage and his Phoenician connection brought forth a unique perspective that bridged different cultures and traditions in remarkable ways.
Pythagoras' intellectual journey and his exploration of arcane knowledge provide valuable insights into the cultural exchanges and religious practices of his time. His association with the Phoenician Temple rites illuminates the significance of Phoenician religious traditions and their impact on broader intellectual and philosophical developments. This history also helps one to recognize why the Greeks were so riveted by the teaching of Christianity, particularly in Corinth, where Paul used Pythagorean concepts to help convince his academic audience, largely consisting of Pythagorean scholars, that Jesus was the Christ, the Messiah that fulfilled much of Greek and Phoenician prophecies, in addition to Jewish prophecies. Many early apologists such as Justyn Martyr and Boethius recognized these connections and record many of their observations.
By understanding Pythagoras' background and the convergence of Greek and Phoenician influences in his life, we gain a deeper appreciation for the interconnectedness of ancient civilizations. It allows us to examine the intersections of diverse cultures and traditions and how they contributed to the rich tapestry of knowledge and philosophical thought in the ancient world. Pythagoras' story serves as a reminder of the importance of cross-cultural exchange and the enrichment that emerges when different perspectives converge.
The history of the Phoenicians is intricate and complicated. Throughout different periods, the Phoenicians alternated between being close friends and allies of Israel to bitter enemies with intense feuds that led to significant conflicts. Gaining an understanding of these complicated relationships and histories can significantly enhance one's overall comprehension of the Bible, and its cultural and social context.
It is important to note that the Phoenicians did not refer to themselves as "Phoenicians." Instead, they identified themselves by the city-state they hailed from, which is how they are mentioned in biblical narratives: Sidonian, Tyrian, Gevalim (known by the Greek name, Byblos), and so forth. These communities lived in present-day Syria and Lebanon.
The Phoenician Port Cities
The Phoenicians, originating from the lands of Canaan, occasionally identifing themselves as "Canaanites." However, it is important to note that this term can be misleading. The term "Canaanite" encompassed all the inhabitants of Canaan, akin to how "European" refers to individuals living in Europe. Just as Europe comprises various independent countries like Germany, Italy, and Greece, each with its distinct laws, cultures, and traditions, the same diversity existed among the Canaanite cities.
The Canaanite cities displayed a wide range of relationships with Israel, varying from friendly to hostile. For instance, cities like Tyre and Sidon, known as Phoenician city-states, maintained significant interactions and trade partnerships with Israel, particularly during the reigns of David and Solomon. They shared similar customs, traditions, languages, government structures, religious practices, and social systems with the Israelites, fostering cultural exchange and cooperation.
On the other hand, there were Canaanite cities that differed greatly from Israel in terms of their practices and beliefs. For instance, cities like Jericho and Ai were known for their hostile encounters with Israel during the conquest of the Promised Land.
The diversity among the Canaanite cities highlights the intricate dynamics within the region. It is important to recognize that while there were instances of similarity and cooperation between the Phoenicians and Israelites, there were also instances of significant contrast and conflict. This multifaceted relationship adds depth and valuable perspective to one's appreciation for the Biblical narrative.
Language and Writing
One thing that united the Phoenician City-States with their Israelite neighbors was their language. They were both Semitic speakers.
The Phoenicians and Israelites were believed to be descendants of Shem, one of Noah's sons. Consequently, they both followed linguistic traditions that, according to the Biblical narrative, were traditionally associated with Shem, leading to the modern term "Semitic" (Who Are the Semites) Historically, each Canaanite community developed its own dialect that stemmed from earlier, shared traditions, similar to how English has American, British, and Australian dialects. Similarly, the Phoenicians and Israelites spoke a similar language and could easily understand one another.
Both the Phoenician and Hebrew languages belonged to the Northwest branch of the Semitic language family, along with the later Aramaic dialect. During the time of King David, the Phoenicians and Israelites even shared similar writing systems. The Paleo-Hebraic and Phoenician scripts were virtually identical, both derived from an earlier Proto-Sinaitic/ Canaanite Script, which have archeological evidence that dates back to around 1800 BC, coinciding with the Biblical time period of Abraham.
The Proto-Sinaitic/Canaanite Script holds the distinction of being the world's earliest known purely phonetic alphabet (abjad). It serves as the precursor to nearly every alphabet in existence today. Scholars have described this alphabet as a "reformed type of Egyptian" due to its similarities with Egyptian hieroglyphs. However, unlike hieroglyphs, the characters in this script were primarily used to represent consistent phonetic sounds rather than complex ideograms. This development, as discussed in "How the Alphabet was Born from Hieroglyphs" and "Writing in the Book of Mormon" by Tvedtnes, greatly simplified the writing system. The hieroglyphic script was known for its complexity, requiring priests and scribes years of education to master. In contrast, the Semitic scripts, including the Proto-Sinaitic/Canaanite Script, streamlined the process, making literacy more accessible to the common person.
More on the History of Writing
Learning about the history of writing offers profound insights, particularly when considering its Semitic origins tied to Biblical history. Even the name "Bible" has an etymological connection to the Phoenician city of Byblos, which, in Greek, meant "Papyrus." This linguistic association gave rise to the root "biblio-" seen in terms like "bibliography" and "bibliotheca" (meaning "library" in Greek). Byblos, referred to as Gebal in the Old Testament, was renowned for its production of papyrus, a significant export of the city.
It is equally important to acknowledge that the fractures observed in the writing systems of that era align with significant Biblical events. The division among the Tribes and the history related to the Diaspora (the scattering of Jews from the land of Israel) corresponded to major political fractures between the Phoenicians and Israelites. These events had far-reaching international repercussions not only in the Near East but also in other parts of the world, leading to the development of multiple languages and scripts.
During the time of King David, the linguistic traditions between Israel and Phoenicia were notably similar; both employed the Ketav Evrit or "Hebrew Script." However, around 500 BC, King Darius mandated the use of the Imperial Aramaic Script, known as Katav Ashirit or "Assyrian Writing." This shift occurred during the time of Daniel and continued into the Second Temple Period when Ezra and Nehemiah were collecting and compiling records for the consolidation of what would become the Old Testament. The Assyrian form of the script served as the foundation for the Hebraic script familiar to us today (Shirpin).
The official changes from the earlier Phoenician/Hebrew to the later Assyrian forms of the alphabet took place after Lehi and his family departed from Jerusalem. Although it is possible that some modifications were already underway, it is likely that the Nephites would have utilized a script that resembled the earlier Phoenician/Evrit script, as this was the traditional writing system of their ancestors, consisting of the "learning of the Jews and the language of the Egyptians," as referenced by Nephi in the opening chapters of the Book of Mormon (1 Nephi 1:2). This script was likely combined with the Hieratic and Demotic scripts that were in use during that era. In addition, both Mormon and Moroni tell us that the Nephites adapted Egyptian characters and that their writing system also changed over time (Mormon 9:32-34, Ether 12:23-29).
It is intriguing to observe that certain symbols found in the character samples that were reportedly shown by Martin Harris to Charles Anthon bear resemblance to letters from the ancient Proto-Hebraic scripts. Although the authenticity of the Anthon manuscript remains widely debated, and its origins have not been conclusively verified, it contains symbols resembling ancient forms of letters such as aleph, bayt, gimel, hey, dalet, vav, zayin, lamed, mem, nun, ayin, samech, tzadi, and tav in various forms. It should be noted that these characters do not form any decipherable words or phrases, rather the symbols appear to be random, at least that is the general consensus. Nevertheless, the presence of these symbols is significant, particularly when considering that very little was known about the Proto-Sinaitic/Canaanite script at the time when Martin Harris presented his sample to Charles Anthon. The rediscovery of the Proto-Sinaitic/Canaanite script did not occur until much later, around 1900 AD.
By 400 AD, most of what was know about the Ancient Hebraic and Phoenician alphabets were lost. The Phoenician script declined following invasions by the Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and finally the Romans. The Samaritans were the only community who successfully preserved a ongoing recognizable form of the earlier script, and it was because of their dedicated efforts that modern linguists have been able to connect the dots. This history might even add an intriguing dimension to the parable of the Good Samaritan.
While the Phoenician script gradually faded into obscurity, it was the Phoenicians who imparted the principles of alphabetic literacy to the Greeks around 800 BC, leading to the development of not only the Greek alphabet but the the modern Latin alphabet as well, via the Etruscan script (The Phoenician Alphabet in Archaeology). Hence, the Phoenician narrative holds immense significance to the Western narrative. Thanks to the Phoenicians, humankind has been able to preserve records of diverse histories for thousands of years, which is a truly remarkable achievement.
Phoenician Trade, Travel & Industry
The Phoenicians gained renown not only for their role in preserving and spreading the "phonetic" alphabet but also for their remarkable skills as craftsmen, merchants, and seafarers. In previous Old Testament lessons, we explored the consequences of the Mycenaean invasion of Crete, which followed a catastrophic volcanic eruption on Thera, the island of modern-day Santorini. As the Mycenaeans from mainland Greece invaded the native Minoan community in Crete, a significant number of Minoans sought refuge in various port cities where they had previously established trading networks. This mass migration of people would have likely triggered various refugee crises throughout the area that would have had profound implications across the Mediterranean world.
This resulting wave of refugees coincided with a major civil war in Egypt referred to as the "Hyksos Invasion." These events sparked numerous trade conflicts, possibly stemming from ongoing hostilities between the Mycenaeans and Minoans. Many scholars now link these conflicts to a phenomenon known as the
"invasion of the Sea Peoples," which ultimately led to the collapse of the Bronze Age in 1177 BC (as discussed in the Smithsonian publication and the book "1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed").
Some scholars theorize that this history may also be connected to the ongoing conflicts that existed between the Philistines and the Phoenicians. While many accounts tend to lump the two together, these were distinctive and separate communities. The Philistines were believed to be descendants of the Mycenaean invaders of Crete, whereas the Phoenicians were known for their support and partnership with their long-time allies in the Minoan community. The southern Philistines, located in the modern gaza strip, and the northern Phoenicians were not friendly, and multiple sources within ancient literature and archeological evidence demonstrates that these communities were hostile towards one another.
In the aftermath of the volcano and subsequent invasion of Crete (Greek: Κρήτη Krete, Hebrew: כַּפְתֹּר Kaphtor, Egyptian: Keftiu as recorded in the The Admonitions of Ipuwer and other Egyptian records), descendants of the Mycenaeans came to dominate the northern Greek trade routes, while the Phoenicians took over the established Minoan southern routes.
As the Minoan civilization quickly declined, a dramatic rise in Phoenicia's population indicates that the Minoans likely sought refuge with their longstanding trading partners, the Phoenicians. The Phoenicians and Minoans had been dominant trading partners for over a thousand years, possibly dating back to 3200 BC when the Phoenicians began transporting the famous trees of Lebanon down to Egypt to assist the Egyptians with their ambitious building projects (Byblos). Due to the hostile desert climate of Egypt, the Egyptians could not grow the type of hardwood trees that were needed for the construction of the Pyramids and Temples. The Minoans and Phoenicians helped to provide the needed tools, resources, skills, and labor. A dramatic influx of Minoan craftsman, sailors, and merchants further contributed to the growth of the Phoenician community. This process began around 1500 BC, which also coincided with the Mycenaean invasion of Crete.
Following King David's victory over the Philistines, who were traditional rivals of the Phoenicians, King David formed a powerful alliance with King Hiram of Tyre. David's defeat of Goliath would have certainly increased the Phoenicians affection for the young hero. It was King Hiram who assisted David in gathering the necessary materials and workforce to build the Temple. It was Hiram who provided David with skilled craftsmen and laborers to construct not only the building but also all of the vestments.
The Phoenician ports served as the primary centers for international trade and were home to exceptionally skilled engineers, craftsmen, and merchants. Throughout their history, the Phoenicians excelled in various crafts, including masonry, metallurgy, textile artistry, glass work, carpentry, and trade. The Greeks referred to the northern Canaanite coastal cities as Phoenicia, deriving the name from the Greek term φοῖνιξ (Phoenix), meaning "palm tree." This name symbolized the abundance of date palms, which were not only a significant agricultural staple for trade but also reflected the Phoenicians' expertise as carpenters and manufacturers.
The ancient Greek term "phoenix" was also associated with the purple and crimson colors and dyes for which the Phoenicians were famous. These dyes were derived from the date palm and the murex mollusks, which were particularly renowned and costly, they are frequently referred to as Tyrian Purple dyes. These dyes originated in Crete, and were first developed by the Minoans. These were the dyes used to make the scarlet, purple, and blue fabrics used to create the veil and priestly robes for both the Tabernacle and Solomon's Temple (אַרְגָּמָן, אַרְגְּוָן כַּרְמִיל, תְּכֵלֶת) . The Mycenaeans referred to the Phoenicians as the 𐀡𐀛𐀑𐀍 (po-ni-ki-jo), the "Purple People," as their skin reportedly became stained purple due to the dyeing process. This name aligns with the Egyptian term fnḫw (fenkhu), meaning "carpenter" or "woodcutter."
During the construction of the first Temple, Solomon employed over 150,000 Phoenicians, including Hyrum, the "widow's son" who served as the chief architect. Hyrum, the son of a Phoenician father, had been trained in the Phoenician tradition, qualifying him for overseeing the construction and artifacts of the Temple. A significant number of supervisors involved in the temple project were also Phoenicians. The Phoenicians had a close working relationship with Israel, which extended to their personal lives as well, resulting in intermarriage between Israelites and Phoenicians, which was something the Lord cautioned against for reasons that will become evident as one learns more about their history.
Ezekiel's accounts in chapters 26-28 indicate that the Phoenicians had once fully participated in the ordinances of the covenant. He described them as "wiser than Daniel" and identified them as one of the "anointed cherubs" that protected God's people. Ezekiel mentioned their walking "among the stones of fire," alluding to the stones in the breastplate of righteousness worn by the High Priest (אַבְנֵי־אֵשׁ Ex 28:7-21, 39:6-14), and the phrase "dwelled in Eden" was a reference to the Temple itself. The Phoenicians had played a significant role in the history of the Temple, constructing it, shaping and carving stones, casting metals, and creating veils and priestly garments. Ezekiel also conveyed that the Phoenicians had initially been "perfect in their beauty" until iniquity corrupted them.
Ezekiel further described the Phoenicians' remarkable success. Not only did they dominate trade in the Levant, but Ezekiel explains that their networks expanded throughout the Mediterranean, reaching modern-day Spain (Tarshish) and extending into northern and southern Asia. Their trade routes even extended into China, eventually forming part of what would become the famous Silk Routes. Archaeological discoveries suggest that the Phoenicians traveled as far as Great Britain and completely circumnavigated the continent of Africa by 600 BC (The Phoenicians - Master Mariners). Some theories propose that the Phoenicians may have reached the Americas, and it is speculated that some of the maps used by Columbus might have originated from ancient Phoenician sources. Even though these maps are generally attributed to Ptolemy, the Greeks and Egyptians did not have the naval capacity to cross the Atlantic and chart the coasts of North and South America, but the Phoenicians did (Phoenicians Sailing to the New World). These theories are highly controversial, and caution should be exercised when exploring them, as a great deal of conjecture, forgeries, and misinformations abound regarding this topic.
Phoenician vs. Israel, Religion and Culture
The conflict between the Phoenicians and the Israelites can be traced back to their divergent religious traditions. While the Phoenicians and Israelites were technically related as cousins, their religious beliefs underwent significant shifts during the events of the Exodus. During this period, Moses restored the principles of the gospel that had been corrupted, primarily due to idolatry. He taught the Israelites that there was only one God who had the power to save them, and that was Yahweh (Jehovah or Jesus Christ). Prior to this, the Israelites were not significantly different from their Canaanite cousins. They had adopted various Egyptian and Canaanite deities into their culture, much like Abraham's community had done during his time.
When the Israelites returned to Canaan, the Lord's main concern was that they would quickly revert to the older, erroneous and idolatrous traditions, which unfortunately came to pass. This was the primary reason behind the Lord's warning against intermarrying with the Canaanites—it was not a matter of race, but rather a matter of preserving their covenant, so Israel could remaining loyal to Him and maintain true doctrine that was not corrupted with false misinformation.
Both King David and King Solomon married Phoenician women. While this was initially celebrated (Psalms 45 INT), unfortunate consequences soon followed as Phoenician religion began to creep into Israelite culture, setting a dangerous precedent that many in Israel quickly followed. When Solomon began constructing temples and shrines for his Egyptian and Phoenician wives, idolatry was reintroduced into Israel, leading to significant confusion. Even Solomon, known for his wisdom, succumbed to this trap, somewhat akin to a recovering alcoholic falling "off the wagon". As a consequence, the Lord sent the prophet Ahijah to Solomon, who prophesied that the kingdom would be divided. Ahijah promised Solomon's servant, Jeroboam, that he would eventually rule over the Northern Tribes. Solomon attempted to assassinate Jeroboam, but he managed to escape to Egypt (1 Kings 11 INT)
Tribes Split
Following the death of Solomon, his son Rehoboam ascended to the throne, and the kingdom of Israel swiftly crumbled. Upon hearing of Solomon's demise, Jeroboam returned from Egypt and received a warm reception, particularly from the Northern Tribes. Jeroboam had worked closely with both the Israelites and the Canaanites during the construction of the Temple, earning the people's trust and respect. The laborious construction had taken a toll on the people, both financially and physically, leaving them utterly exhausted. They turned to Jeroboam to advocate for relief on their behalf. When Rehoboam met Jeroboam and his group of ambassadors, he requested time to consult with his advisors before making a decision. The older and more experienced advisors counseled Rehoboam to listen to the people, advising that showing mercy would earn their loyalty. However, the younger advisors, mostly Rehoboam's friends, gave the opposite counsel.
Regrettably, Rehoboam responded crudely and cruelly, making an offensive reference to his masculinity. He declared that although Solomon had burdened the people with a heavy yoke, he would make it even heavier. Rather than chastising them with whips, he threatened to beat them with scorpions—whips laced with metal barbs, glass, and rocks woven into the leather. (1 Kings 12 INT)
Upon receiving Rehoboam's harsh verdict, the Northern Tribes revolted and separated from the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, crowning Jeroboam as their king. Despite receiving a promise of great success if he remained loyal to the Lord, Jeroboam failed to do so. Worried that the Israelites would eventually reconcile with Rehoboam if they continued to travel to Jerusalem for sacrifices at the Temple, Jeroboam took action to prevent it. He established two temples in the northern regions and installed golden calves in each of them. Jeroboam also appointed false priests, including himself, who were not from the tribe of Levi, to oversee religious festivals. These priests performed counterfeit rituals, mimicking the sacred convocations held in Jerusalem. However, these rituals lacked authorization from God and marked the formal introduction of priestcraft into Israel, blending with the religious traditions of the Canaanites.
Regrettably, according to the Biblical record, the tribes of Judah and Benjamin also succumbed to similar pitfalls. They, too, constructed idols and groves, which were associated with prostitution and sex trafficking. They also appointed false and corrupt priests. The downward spiral of both Israel and Judah was swift and alarming. With each successive king, the situation deteriorated further. Both the Northern Tribes and Judah delved deeper into idol worship, embracing wicked and immoral traditions. The consequences were dire, with bloodshed, disturbing abuses of power, and numerous wars erupting among Judah, Israel, and Phoenicia. Although a few righteous kings emerged sporadically, the overall condition of both the Israelite and Judahite kingdoms remained troubled. This set the stage for the story of Ahab and his wicked Phoenician queen, Jezebel.
Ahab's Regime
Jezebel, a princess from Sidon, became infamous for her involvement in numerous abhorrent acts. However, her actions can be seen as manifestations of the underlying moral decay and pre-existing issues that plagued the Israelite and Jewish communities. However, for generations to come, Jezebel and the Phoenicians would become convenient political scapegoats for Israel and Judah. Instead of taking personal responsibility for their wickedness and crimes, it was easier for them to shift the blame onto the other nation, in this case, the Phoenicians. Jezebel's gender further facilitated her as an easy scapegoat.
Ahab's family actively contributed to the anti-Phoenician propaganda. They promoted the worship of idols and false gods, making the worship of Ba'al the official state religion (JTvedness.). They persecuted and even killed the prophets and priests of the Lord. Various forms of priestcraft, including unrighteous dominion, corruption, witchcraft, bribery, theft, and murder for personal gain, became prevalent under their rule. Ahab and Jezebel were so corrupt that the Lord sent the prophet Elijah to overthrow their wicked regime.
However, it is crucial to understand that Elijah and the Lord were not against the Phoenicians, including the Sidonians. In fact, a Sidonian widow saved Elijah from starvation by offering him the last of her grain and oil. As a result of her sacrifice, the Lord blessed her by multiplying her supplies and even restored her deceased son to life at Elijah's request. This story served as a reminder to the Jews that the Phoenicians and Samaritans were not their enemies but their brothers. It was not one's race or culture that defined them as "good" or "evil," but the nature of their character, motives, and actions. Given the history of animosity between these nations, this message faced significant resistance.
During Ahab's reign, he formed a political alliance with Judah through a marriage arrangement involving Athaliah, who was related to him. Different accounts present conflicting information about their exact relationship, with one claiming Athaliah was his daughter and another stating she was his sister. Regardless of the specifics, it is evident that Ahab intentionally sought to infiltrate the Judean line and merge the kingdoms under his rule. The Lord sent Elijah and Elisha to oppose Ahab's actions and prevent this consolidation of power.
Following the Lord's instruction, Elijah and Elisha were told to anoint Jehu, who was serving as the Captain of the guard, as the new king of Israel. Elisha sent a brave young Levite boy on a dangerous mission to clandestinely anoint Jehu as the divinely authorized monarch. The purpose of this mission was to lead a coup against the house of Ahab. This significant event took place around 841 BC, after Ahab was killed in battle. Joram, Ahab and Jezebel's son, had ascended the Israelite throne. Meanwhile, King Ahaziah of Judah, who was Athaliah's son and possibly Jezebel's grandson or nephew, was leading the Jewish armies. The two kings, and cousins, were stationed together to confront the Syrians at the battle of Ramoth-gilead. Joram had been injured, and Ahaziah chose to accompany him back to Jezreel to seek medical attention. During their return to Jezreel, Jehu and his men seized the opportunity to plot an ambush, resulting in the deaths of both kings (2 Kings 8-9). It is important to recognize the familial ties between the slain kings and Ahab. Joram was Ahab and Jezebel's son, and King Ahaziah of Judah had a close family connection to Jezebel, possibly her grandson. This is highly significant because this event would trigger a series of violent and tragic responses.
After eliminating the kings, Jehu and his guards rode into Jezreel, where Jezebel awaited them. Jezebel, adorned in her royal attire, greeted Jehu from an upper-story window. Having already learned about the assassinations, she was incensed. Jehu called out to Jezebel's servants from below, questioning their loyalty. He commanded them to throw Jezebel from the window, which they did, leading to her demise. She fell, died, and her body was devoured by wild dogs (2 Kings 9).
In Jerusalem, Athaliah, upon hearing the news of her son's death and likely the loss of her brother and mother, was consumed by rage. In her fury, she ordered the capture and execution of all potential heirs of David, thereby establishing herself as the sole surviving ruler and monarch of Judah. However, unbeknownst to Athaliah, one infant child escaped and was secretly smuggled out of the palace and taken to the priests of the Temple. The priests covertly raised Joash, the young heir to the throne, until he reached the age of eight. During that time, they meticulously organized and facilitated a strategic coup to overthrow Athaliah and restore Joash to his rightful position, as king of Judah, and son of David. (2 Kings 11; 2 Chr 24)
Ahab’s regime intensified the animosity between Judah, Israel, and Phoenicia. This animosity grew more complicated when the Assyrians captured Israel in 722 BC. The remaining Israelites integrated with the Phoenician Canaanites and Assyrians, eventually forming a “mixed race” that would come to be known as the “Samaritans.” Their name came from the old capital city of Israel, Samaria. The New Testament reveals the strained relations between the Jews and Samaritans. The Jews believed that the Phoenicians were to blame for the capture and scattering of Israel, because they had been the catalysts for introducing idolatry into Israel and into Judah, when in fact, the Jews were equally as guilty, and that becomes more evident as the story continues.
Manasseh & Josiah
In 630 BC, eight-year-old Josiah ascended to the throne of Israel amidst a troubled state. His grandfather, King Manasseh, had led the nation astray by fully embracing idolatry. The situation worsened when Manasseh desecrated Solomon's Temple, housing various idols and even sacrificing his own son to the Ammonite deity, Molech, within the temple's sacred walls (1 Kings 21; 2 Chronicles 33). This marked a breaking point for the Lord, who then decided to bring about the destruction of Jerusalem. However, before executing this judgment, the Lord laid the foundation for an eventual restoration, strategically preserving just enough pieces and fragments to facilitate the eventual return of Israel and Judah. Josiah played a significant role in this process.
During this period, a significant shift occurred in the regional power dynamics as Nabopolassar rose to dominance in Babylon, challenging the previously established Assyrian leadership that had conquered the Northern Tribes. This change in leadership brought some relief to the Northern Israelites who had remained in the area, as they experienced a loosening of burdens and regulations. Recognizing the opportunity to reunite the lost tribes, both Josiah and the prophet Jeremiah were dedicated to reaching out to these remnants. They saw an alliance with Nabopolassar as a strategic means to achieve their goal. However, their efforts faced substantial opposition from certain Jewish leaders who were hesitant to support this cause. These differing perspectives created political fractures within the government, presenting significant challenges to their mission of gathering the lost tribes back to the fold.
In addition to his missionary endeavors, Josiah played a pivotal role in implementing significant reforms to combat idolatry and priestly corruption in Jerusalem (2 Kings 22-23, 2 Chr 34-35). One of his most notable actions was the collection of various Jewish records and histories, prompted by the discovery of a Torah scroll in the Temple, believed to be authored by Moses. Josiah's efforts marked the beginning of a compilation process that ultimately resulted in the creation of the book of Kings. It is widely believed that Jeremiah, during his time in Egypt following the diaspora, contributed to the completion of this task in addition to authoring the books of Jeremiah and Lamentations.
The act of gathering and compiling these sacred texts carries a parallel theme with the account of Nephi from the Book of Mormon. In the Book of Mormon narrative, Nephi was commanded to obtain the plates of Brass from Laban, which contained similar records preserved in the Temple libraries. This convergence underscores the significance of preserving historical and spiritual records among the ancient Israelites and their descendants. It might also shed some light on how the Brass plates, which included the Torah, came into being.
The compilation efforts spearheaded by Josiah and furthered by Jeremiah in Egypt played a crucial role in laying the foundation for the Bible as we know it today. These records provided invaluable historical context and served as the backbone for the formation of both the Old Testament and the Book of Mormon. They not only preserved the teachings and history of ancient Israel but also provided a spiritual compass for future generations, ensuring the continuity of faith and the transmission of divine revelations.
In the spring of 609 BC, an event unfolded that posed a significant challenge to the efforts of Josiah and Jeremiah. The Egyptian Pharaoh Necho II mobilized a sizable army with the intention of aiding a remaining group of Assyrians who were trying to counter the advancing Babylonians. This military campaign had the potential to disrupt and undermine the missionary endeavors that Josiah and Jeremiah had been tirelessly pursuing, namely the reunification of the Northern Tribes.
Crucially, Pharaoh Necho II received support from the Phoenicians, who played a critical role in facilitating the transportation of the Egyptian armies. The Phoenicians provided the ships and sailors needed for the movement of the troops and their supplies. The Phoenicians collaboration with Egypt was the catalyst that prompted the prophet Ezekiel to address his letter to the King of Tyre in Ezekiel chapters 26, 27, and 28. Ezekiel lamented this decision as a brutal act of betrayal. His correspondence, filled with divine admonitions and prophecies, condemned the King of Tyre and the Phoenicians for their alliance with Egypt against the Babylonians, and it served as a warning, outlining the dire consequences that would eventually unfold as a result of their foolish and selfish actions.
As Pharaoh Necho launched his invasion, he made preparations to traverse a ridge of hills that converged along the southern end of the Jezreel Valley. However, in his approach he encountered an unexpected obstacle as his path was blocked. A politically compromised Judean army, stood in defiance, seeking to impede Necho's advances at Megiddo, as chronicled in 2 Chronicles 35:20-27. Leading this valiant force was King Josiah himself, fully aware of the perilous nature of the mission. Despite the Egyptian Pharaoh's non-hostile intentions towards Judah, he approached Josiah and urged him to abandon his course. Necco had no desire for conflict with the Judeans. Nonetheless, driven by an unwavering commitment to safeguard his northern brethren from the Assyrians, King Josiah went beyond the call of duty. He disguised himself as a common soldier, joining the ranks to lend aid even after being removed from the front lines. This is how he died. Such was the magnitude of Josiah's love for his fellow Israelites that he willingly sacrificed his own life for their protection. The loss of this extraordinary and heroic King plunged both Israel and Judah into deep mourning.
Ezekiel's heartbreaking letter served as a devastated rebuke to the Phoenicians, who had forsaken their loyalty to Judah and to Israel. It also offers valuable insights and perspective into the Phoenicians' history. Ezekiel's letter outlines vast trade routes, detailing specific locations as he highlighted the immense power and influence of the Phoenicians across the Mediterranean during this time. It also warned of the perilous path the Phoenicians had embarked upon, fueled by their pride and arrogance, which he prophesied would ultimately lead to their downfall. Ezekiel condemned the King of Tyre for exalting himself and the Phoenicians as "gods," among the nations, which Ezekiel warned would ignite a dangerous and narcissistic hubris among the people that would ultimately crumble under the jealousy and disdain of their enemies, this would conclusively end in devastation, destruction, and ruin.
The Phoenicians' accomplishments in trade and exploration had bestowed them with significant knowledge, opportunities, power, and resources that far surpassed those of their neighboring regions. While most individuals of that era were confined to their small agricultural plots and nearby settlements, the Phoenicians ventured far and wide, their achievements and tales became the foundations of legends. Not only did they disseminate the alphabet across their vast spheres of influence, but they also propagated various religious ideas, which stemmed from the Canaanite traditions that they had mutually shared with Israel at several points. Not only did the Phoenicians spread the alphabet throughout their spheres of influence, but they also spread many of their religious ideas and mythologies. Like the alphabet, different communities adopted the general concepts related to the Canaanite stories and modified them to make their own.
Phoenician Mythology
The Phoenicians played a significant role in shaping many of the enduring Greek legends that we know today. The city of Sidon gave birth to the name Poseidon, the "mighty god of the sea". In Ancient Greek posis πόσις means "husband, lord," and Sidon was the name of the Phoenician port city. From the Phoenician city of Tyre sprung the tales of the "Tyrants," whose stories depict the Greek god Zeus overthrowing an earlier overlord named χρόνος Cronus. In Disney's adaptation of Hercules, the muses sing a song called "The Gospel Truth," and the lyrics open,
Back when the world was new
The planet Earth was down on its luck
And everywhere gigantic brutes
Called Titans ran amok
The term "Titan" is regularly used in conjunction with the name "tyrant", which may have developed from an ancient racial slur describing the brutal Phoenician overlords of Tyre, who Ezekiel claimed had built themselves up as "gods" ( philistine 𐤈𐤓𐤍 etymologically related to Hebrew סֶרֶן). Later, this term was used to describe other political rulers who attempted to justify sole power and dominance over various communities (Lendering). If one strips away the mystical nature of these legends, one can begin to recognize that these mythological accounts reflect some of the political history and descriptions that are recorded in the Bible, and many modern day archeologist are beginning to uncover and unravel some of these mysteries.
The Phoenix, the mythical bird that symbolizes rebirth from ashes, derived its name from the Greek term φοῖνιξ (Phoenix), a reference to both the bird itself and the Phoenician people. This was also the term used to describe the palm branches that were waved when Christ entered the city of Jerusalem on palm Sunday. Hercules, or Heracles, the legendary Greek demigod, shares many similarities with the Phoenician deities Melqart and Molech, and these stories have undergone countless adaptations and reinterpretations over several millennia. The multifaceted goddess Ashtoreth has been associated with various deities, such as the Minoan Snake goddess, Athena, Ishtar, Astarte, and Asherah (Downey), all of whom share striking resemblances to Eve, encompassing familiar themes of a sacred tree, a mother goddess, and a snake representing wisdom. The name Ba'al, meaning Lord and husband, might even have a connections to the biblical story of Adam. Later, the Romans, Norse, and others borrowed and adapted several of these Phoenician and Greek legends, which further added to a rich and diverse tapestry of mythology and legend.
Ezekiel's prophecy and the Phoenician's Decline
Returning to Ezekiel's account, his prophecy foretold the inevitable attack and destruction of Tyre, a prediction that would be realized within a few centuries.
After the passing of Josiah, Jeremiah took up the mantle and persistently urged the people of Judah to cooperate with the Babylonians. He emphasized that repentance and unity could still secure God's favor, but regrettably, the stubbornness of the people prevented them from heeding his wise counsel. This resistance to Jeremiah's advice resulted in deepening political divisions and further weakened the already fragile state of Judah.
Following Josiah's demise, his son Jehoahaz assumed the throne. Regrettably, he chose to disregard his father's reforms, and Jerusalem swiftly reverted to its idolatrous practices (2 Kings 23:32, Jeremiah 22:15-16). Jehoahaz's reign lasted a mere three months before he was deposed by Necco, who took him captive for the remainder of his life.
Josiah's remaining son, Jehoiakim, was appointed as king by Necho II, serving as a vassal ruler under Egypt's authority. Jehoiakim was burdened with the payment of substantial tribute to Egypt, which further strained the resources of Judah. In the midst of Jehoiakim's rule, both Jeremiah and another prophet named Uriah ben Shemaiah openly criticized his policies. Tragically, Jehoiakim responded to this dissent by executing Uriah (Jeremiah 26:20-23). This period coincided with the time when Lehi, as recorded in the Book of Mormon, was prophesying in Jerusalem. The Book of Mormon reveals that Lehi also faced similar threats to his life due to his prophetic message.
In 605 BC, the decisive Battle of Carchemish resulted in a victory for the Babylonians. Jehoiakim, realizing the shifting tides, was compelled to change his allegiances from Egypt to Babylon. To appease the Babylonians and avoid further conflict, Jehoiakim resorted to bribery, offering them treasures from the Temple as a means of negotiation.
While this temporary arrangement provided a brief respite, the peace was short-lived, and in late 598 BC, Nebuchadnezzar II launched a full-scale invasion of Judah and besieged Jerusalem for three months. Under the immense pressure, Jehoiakim was forced to surrender additional Temple artifacts. Moreover, Nebuchadnezzar took many members of the royal and noble families hostage, along with numerous soldiers, masons, and craftsmen. Only a skeleton crew of personnel remained to govern Jerusalem. Among those captured and carried away into Babylon was King Jehoiakim himself (2 Kings 24), along with Daniel, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego.
Following the capture of Jehoiakim, Nebuchadnezzar appointed Zedekiah, another son of Josiah, as the new king of Judah. The Babylonians held high hopes for Zedekiah, considering Josiah's loyalty to their cause in the past. They hoped that Zedekiah would follow in his father's footsteps and maintain a favorable relationship with Babylon. However, Zedekiah disappointingly continued the practices of idolatry and persisted in persecuting the prophets. Jeremiah, who had been steadfast in his warnings and counsel, became a target of Zedekiah's wrath and was unjustly thrown into prison.
During his imprisonment, Jeremiah endured torture and was cast into a muddy pit, where he faced the brink of death. Eventually, he was rescued from the pit, but remained imprisoned until the destruction of Jerusalem. Despite Jeremiah's repeated admonitions, Zedekiah foolishly disregarded his counsel. Instead of pursuing peace, he rebelled against the king of Babylon and once again entered into a secret alliance with Egypt, further exacerbating the tensions and conflicts between them. Zedekiah's actions were a grave mistake that would ultimately lead to disastrous consequences for Jerusalem.
In 587 BC, Nebuchadnezzar reached his breaking point and launched another attack on Jerusalem. This time, his forces razed the Temple to the ground, leaving nothing of value behind. The sacred artifacts, including the altars and the molten sea, were plundered and taken away. While the exact fate of the Ark of the Covenant remains unknown, it is commonly believed to have been taken during this period of destruction.
The Temple and the palaces in Jerusalem were set ablaze, reducing the city to ashes. Zedekiah, in a desperate attempt to escape, was captured by the Babylonians. Tragically, his sons were mercilessly executed before his eyes, and as a final act of cruelty, Nebuchadnezzar ordered Zedekiah's eyes to be gouged out. Thus, Zedekiah was forced to witness the annihilation of his family and his dynasty just before his sight was forever taken from him. Subsequently, Zedekiah was taken to Babylon, where he faced trial for his rebellion.
Following the destruction of Jerusalem, Nebuchadnezzar showed a surprising act of mercy towards Jeremiah. He appointed Jeremiah to the care of his Captain of the Guard, instructing him to ensure Jeremiah's well-being and to dutifully follow his instructions. As a result, Jeremiah was released from captivity and he made his way to Egypt. There, he continued his important work of documenting the histories of Israel, preserving their collective memory.
Meanwhile, the remaining Jews were scattered, many were taken captive into Babylon, where they experienced the devastating effects of bondage, displacement, and the hardships of exile. This further intensified the longstanding animosity between the Jews and the Northern Tribes in Assyria, further deepening the divisions among them.
Nebuchadnezzar's conquest did not end with the destruction of Jerusalem. He marched onward to the city of Tyre, where a lengthy and arduous 13-year war unfolded from 586 BC to 573 BC. Despite the Tyrians' valiant resistance, they eventually surrendered to the Babylonian forces. Though the Tyrians managed to retain some level of autonomy as a vassal state, they were burdened with heavy tributes imposed by the Babylonians as a sign of their subjugation.
The Persians
In 539 BC, the Achaemenid Empire, under the leadership of Cyrus the Great, successfully conquered the Babylonians, marking the end of their reign. Cyrus, known for his benevolent policies, issued a decree allowing the Jews to return to their homeland to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. This was met with great joy and gratitude among the Jewish community.
As the Jews began the process of reconstruction, they sought assistance from various sources, including the Phoenicians. The Phoenicians were once again brought in to lend their expertise and support. Their contribution played a significant role in the restoration efforts of the Second Temple (Ezra 3:7,10-11).
Amidst the reconstruction project, the Samaritans, who had a mixed ancestry combining Israelite and other ethnic groups, approached the Jewish community with a request to participate in the restoration process. However, due to the longstanding tension and animosity between the Northern Samaritan Tribes and Judah, their request was rejected (Ezra 4).
The Jews, cautious about potential conflicts and compromises in their religious practices, chose to focus on rebuilding their own community without the involvement of the Samaritans.
1 Now when the adversaries (Northern Tribes/ Samaritans cross reference D&C 123:1-17) of Judah and Benjamin heard that the children of the captivity builded the temple unto the Lord God of Israel;
2 Then they came to Zerubbabel, and to the chief of the fathers, and said unto them, Let us build with you: for we seek your God, as ye do; and we do sacrifice unto him since the days of Esar-haddon king of Assur, which brought us up hither.
3 But Zerubbabel, and Jeshua, and the rest of the chief of the fathers of Israel, said unto them, Ye have nothing to do with us to build an house unto our God; but we ourselves together will build unto the Lord God of Israel, as aking Cyrus the king of Persia hath commanded us.
The lingering resentment and animosity between the Jews and the Northern Tribes, including the Samaritans, persisted even during the reconstruction period. The Jews held a deep-seated grudge against the Northern Tribes, attributing them with the responsibility for the idolatrous practices that ultimately led to the destruction of the First Temple. However, it is important to recognize that the Jews themselves also bore a significant share of the blame, particularly due to the actions of King Manasseh of Judah, who played a detrimental role in their history.
Driven by their determination to exclude the Samaritans and others, the Jews staunchly resisted their participation in the rebuilding process. This resulted in a delay of approximately 40 years as the Samaritans persistently petitioned the governing officials for inclusion. However, the situation took a turn when King Darius, recognizing the importance of rebuilding the Temple, intervened to expedite the process.
King Darius's intervention brought renewed momentum to the reconstruction efforts. With his support and determination, the rebuilding of the Temple gained pace, overcoming the opposition and obstacles that had hindered progress. Under Darius's influence, the Jewish community focused on the task at hand, setting aside their grievances and prioritizing the restoration of their sacred site.
Tirshatha’s Ruling
During the court proceedings of the second temple, astute Jewish lawyers strategically negotiated an agreement with the Persian government to secure tax breaks for their community. Recognizing the financial challenges associated with the construction project, they leveraged this arrangement as a means to protect their position against the inclusion of the Samaritans. The Jewish lawyers argued that allowing the Northern Tribes to participate would undermining revenue collection for the Persian King, as their participation would qualify them for the same tax breaks that the Jews were receiving.
This backdrop sheds light on the underlying context surrounding the incident involving the Pharisees who attempted to entrap the Savior by posing the question of whether they should pay taxes to Caesar (Matt. 22:17; Mark 12:14; Luke 20:22.). The parallel can be drawn between the Pharisees' question and the concerns raised during the court proceedings, highlighting the intricate web of political maneuvering and tax implications that they were trying to present to the Roman authorities against Jesus.
The successful argument presented by the Jewish leaders to the Persian courts resulted in the rejection of the Samaritans' case. Consequently, the Persian government issued a decree stipulating that individuals must possess a verifiable genealogical register proving their pure Jewish/Israelite lineage in order to enter the Temple or partake in the sacred ordinances of the Priesthood. This decree aimed to ensure the preservation of Jewish identity and the integrity of the religious practices within the newly constructed temple. The genealogical register requirement, as recorded in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, became a means of safeguarding the sanctity and exclusivity of the Jewish community (Ezra 2:62-63, Nehemiah 7:65).
The economic concerns of the Persians played a significant role in their decision-making. The potential for individuals to falsely claim Israelite descent to evade taxes posed a serious threat to government revenue. Given the complex demographic composition of the region, distinguishing genuine Israelites from those who simply sought to exploit the system became a challenge. Consequently, the Persian governor, Tirshatha, took a firm stance when he declared that “until a Priest stood up with Urim and with Thummim, those with polluted lines should not partake of the most holy things, and they should be put from the Priesthood.” Those who could not prove their blood lines, and those who were found to have "impure" or "polluted" genealogies were barred from participating in the holiest aspects of the religion and were expelled from the Priesthood. This had far-reaching implications, as it meant that many individuals from the Northern Tribes, including Syrians, Phoenicians, and Samaritans, were not only deprived of access to the blessings of the Temple but it also stripped them of their rights within the Priesthood. The consequences were deeply felt, as this ruling severed their connections to the religious and spiritual life of the Israelite community. This significant event marked a clear and lasting division between the Jewish community and their northern neighbors.
During this time, King Darius also played a pivotal role in further distinguishing these communities by instituting the official use of the Katav Ashurite, also known as the Assyrian Script. This script, which had been developed and employed by the Persian government, possibly under the oversight of Daniel (Daniel 1:4-9), became the designated writing system for sacred Jewish texts from that point onward. It represented a departure from the earlier Ketav Evrit, or Hebrew script, which bore resemblance to the Phoenician script. Despite the historical usage of Ketav Evrit by notable figures such as David and Moses, many Jewish leaders dismissed this earlier writing system as "profane" and "common." Their decision stemmed primarily from the association of Ketav Evrit with the Phoenician and Samaritan scripts, further reinforcing the growing divide between the Jews and their neighboring communities. The Katav Ashirite is the script that is still used today, and it represents what most people think of when they think of the Hebrew script, but there is no evidence for this script being used prior to around 500 BC.
The Greeks
As mentioned previously, several ancient documents place Pythagoras in Babylon during the reconstruction of the Second Temple. As the son of a Greek mother and a Phoenician father, Pythagoras would have certainly been denied access to the Temple, in spite of the fact that he dedicated so much of his life to learning about it. He studied with the prophets of Moses and the Magi. He traveled to Egypt to learn from various scholars and priests, some of whom might have even been students of Jeremiah.
When Cyrrus announced the reconstruction of the Second Temple, Pythagoras promptly returned to Babylon. Iamblichus recorded that Cambyses, Cyrus' son, was sent to Egypt, and one of his assignments was to take Pythagoras back to Babylon. This was during the same time that the Bible explains that Levite priests and singers were being gathered from far and wide to the Temple site, in preparation to officiate in their priesthood duties. The account specifies that Pythagoras happily obliged and returned to Babylon, even though he was technically taken as a prisoner. This raises the question of whether Pythagoras might have been among those petitioning the Persian courts for access to the Temple. He was present during the entire duration of the legal proceedings, and records indicate that Pythagoras only returned to Greece approximately a year after Tirshatha's final verdict.
Once in Greece, Pythagoras started his own school, teaching his students about his intellectual journey through his travels and experiences. Pythagoras' travels to Babylon and Egypt had a profound influence on his role as a teacher. These journeys exposed him to the wisdom, knowledge, and traditional practices of these ancient civilizations, which he later incorporated into his own teachings. Here are some concepts and practices that Pythagoras imparted, influenced by his experiences in Babylon and Egypt:
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Mathematics, Music, and Geometry: In Babylon, Pythagoras encountered advanced mathematical systems and geometric principles. He learned about numerical symbolism, the concept of proportions, and the application of geometry in practical contexts. These mathematical ideas greatly influenced his own mathematical teachings, including the famous Pythagorean theorem. Pythagoras connected the Mathematical principles to music, and Iamblichus tells us that it was in Babylon that Pythagoras came to understand music as "the most perfect worship of the gods," this would have been during the same time frame that the Levite singers were returning to the Temple. The musical, mathematical, and geometric principles that Pythagoras taught to his disciples became the foundation for the development of the modern scholastic and music systems that are still applicable today.
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Mysticism and Spiritual Teachings: Egypt was renowned for its mystical and esoteric traditions, and Babylon had obvious spiritual connections with Israelite and Persian influences. Pythagoras absorbed many of these spiritual teachings during his time there. He was introduced to ideas of divine harmony, sacred geometry, and the pursuit of inner enlightenment. These concepts formed the basis of Pythagoras' own spiritual philosophy, emphasizing the harmony and order found in the universe.
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Metaphysical and Cosmological Ideas: Pythagoras encountered the cosmological theories and metaphysical concepts prevalent in Babylon and Egypt. He learned about the concept of a hierarchical universe, the interconnectedness of all things, and the belief in the transmigration of souls. These ideas shaped Pythagoras' understanding of the universe and influenced his teachings on the soul, its immortality, and its journey through various incarnations.
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Ethical and Moral Principles: Both Babylonian and Egyptian cultures placed emphasis on ethical codes and moral values. Pythagoras incorporated these teachings into his own philosophical system, emphasizing the importance of moral conduct, virtue, and harmony in one's life. He taught his followers to live in accordance with these principles and to cultivate virtues such as justice, temperance, and wisdom.
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Rituals and Ceremonies: Pythagoras observed the religious rituals and ceremonies practiced in Babylon and Egypt. He recognized the significance of rituals in connecting individuals to the divine and fostering a sense of community. Pythagoras incorporated certain ceremonial practices, such as purification rites and communal gatherings, into the rituals of his own Pythagorean school.
Pythagoras' travels allowed him to synthesize the knowledge and wisdom he acquired from various cultures, resulting in a unique and comprehensive system of teachings. He combined mathematical reasoning, spiritual insights, ethical principles, and metaphysical ideas to create a holistic philosophy that emphasized harmony, order, and the pursuit of wisdom. Pythagoras' teachings influenced and inspired many scholars, mathematicians, and philosophers including Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle, and these teachings continue to influence many to this day (whether they know it or not).
In 336 BC, Alexander the Great, a student of Aristotle's, ascended to the throne of Macedonia at the young age of 18. Alexander harbored deep-seated animosity towards the Persians, stemming from Persia's previous invasions of Greece. Throughout the 5th century BCE, the Persian Empire, led by kings such as Darius and Xerxes, launched multiple incursions into Greece, sparking the infamous Persian Wars. These wars had a significant impact on many Greek city-states, including Macedonia. Due to its geographical location, whenever the Persians sent armies to attack Athens or other western regions, Macedonia would suffer considerable devastation. Situated in a narrow stretch of land that connected the Persian Empire to the Greek city-states, Macedonia found itself caught in the crossfire on many occasions (map). From the Greek perspective, Alexander and his compatriots did not view themselves as aggressors but rather as defenders of their freedom and autonomy against escalating Persian aggression.
The story of Esther unfolds against the backdrop of the Persian-Greek conflicts, with King Xerxes (a different transliteration of Ahasuerus) playing a central role. This historical context helps us understand Alexander the Great's deep-seated animosity towards the Persians.
In 334 BC, Alexander embarked on a military campaign that would rapidly conquer a vast portion of the Ancient World. His empire stretched from Greece to India and extended southward into Egypt (map). One of Alexander's significant triumphs was the conquest of the city of Tyre. Recognizing the strategic importance of controlling the Phoenician ports, Alexander aimed to establish dominance over the Mediterranean, a goal that proved to be well-founded. By gaining control of these key coastal hubs, Alexander secured a crucial position in maritime trade and was able to more efficiently exert his influence across the entire region.
As Alexander's armies advanced southward, they encountered the various city-states of Phoenicia. While many of these cities submitted without much resistance, Tyre proved to be a formidable opponent. When Alexander arrived at Tyre, he made a request to enter the Phoenician Temple and offer sacrifices. Some suggest that Alexander deliberately made this request, anticipating a confrontation, as he sought to assert his authority over the Phoenicians. However, as a student of Aristotle, Alexander may have had genuine motives.
Regardless, Alexander's request was met with a resolute refusal from the Tyrians. They vehemently denied Alexander's entry into the sacred Temple, an act that further heightened tensions. In a bold and defiant response, the Phoenicians threw Alexander's messengers off the cliffs of the Temple, resulting in their tragic deaths. This act of defiance by the Tyrians demonstrated their unwavering determination to resist Alexander's advances and protect their city.
The Siege of Tyre
During a relentless seven-month siege against Tyre, Alexander's forces tirelessly attacked the strong fortifications, determined to conquer the city. The citizens of Tyre, realizing the dire situation, sent a plea for help to their sister city in Carthage, urging them to come to their aid. However, assistance arrived too late. The Carthaginians arrived at the shores of Tyre only to witness a grim and haunting sight.
Along the coastline, they discovered two thousand of their leaders, nailed to crosses as a grim warning of Alexander's ruthlessness. Inside the city, the Carthaginians encountered a scene of devastation, as six thousand inhabitants had been killed during the raid. Tragically, thirty thousand others, including women and children who had sought refuge, had been captured and sold into slavery. The brutality and aftermath of the siege were a sobering reminder of the consequences of defying Alexander's military might.
Punic Wars
The Punic Wars erupted from deep-seated animosity that had festered among the Phoenician nations, particularly stemming from the tragic history of Tyre. This long standing resentment and fear eventually manifested into a series of brutal conflicts with Rome. By this time, Rome had already conquered and assimilated a significant portion of the Greek territories that were once under the dominion of Alexander the Great's successors. The tensions escalated when Rome sought to assert control over crucial trade routes in Sicily, prompting a resistance from the Carthaginians who were also vying for territorial expansion. The sudden and untimely death of Alexander at the age of 32 created a power vacuum across the region, triggering political instability and fueling the ambitions of various entities seeking to fill the void. Ultimately, the Romans and Carthaginians emerged as the dominant forces in this power struggle, setting the stage for a protracted conflict that would span over a century, from 264 to 146 BC.
The term "Punic" is the Latin word for Phoenician and it was predominantly used by the Romans to depict the Carthaginians. This term carried a derogatory connotation, serving to emphasize the ferocity and intensity displayed by the Carthaginians in battle. Phrases such as "punic faith" emerged as a means to label individuals who lacked integrity, and who possessed a treacherous, and deceitful reputation. These types of usages likely originated as a form of Roman propaganda, and as history is often written by the victors, our understanding of the Carthaginian perspective remains limited. The Punic Wars themselves were unparalleled in their brutality and violence. These were the bloodiest and deadliest wars in the history of the world up to that point, and these conflicts fundamentally shaped the fate of the Roman Republic. In the crucible of warfare, Rome's resolve, skill, and technological advancements were honed to a razor's edge, thereby propelling them to rise in power as the dominant force the ancient world.
The Phoenicians, hardened by their own tragic history, adopted an unrelenting and merciless approach to warfare. Drawing inspiration from the tactics employed by Alexander the Great, the Carthaginians embraced brutal force and terror as effective tools to instill fear in their enemies and subjects. Crucifixion, a method of execution known for its agonizing and public nature, was frequently employed by the Carthaginians. This brutal practice extended even to their own leaders and generals. The Carthaginians would routinely crucify their own political leaders and generals for any sign or type of failure. The intentional use of crucifixion in this way served as a constant and haunting reminder of the severe consequences of defeat. It symbolically embodied the Carthaginians' traumatic history in Tyre, leaving an indelible mark on their collective psyche and reinforcing their determination to avoid repeating past failures.
The Romans, influenced by the Carthaginians, adopted crucifixion as a method of execution. However, unlike the Carthaginians, the Romans reserved this form of capital punishment for individuals who had committed crimes. They regarded the Carthaginian practice of crucifying their own generals and leaders as repugnant. The Carthaginians, driven by their unwavering determination to never surrender or accept defeat, became a formidable adversary for Rome, and in the end this mentality crushed them. The culmination of the Punic Wars resulted in the complete destruction of Carthage by the renowned Roman general Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, who famously proclaimed, "Carthage must be destroyed!" Scipio frequently employed this phrase as a form of propaganda in his public speeches, and he finally fulfilled his mission. In the final battle, Carthage was burned to the ground, and legends say that the victorious Romans sowed mounds of salt into the ruins of of the city so that nothing would regrow, thereby preventing others from trying to rebuild. The ruthlessness displayed by Rome during the conquest of Carthage led historians to refer to this period as "The Roman Holocaust."
Amidst the complex political and military landscape of the time, several interconnected events unfolded that would shape the history of various communities. While the Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage raged, conflicts and rivalries among the Greek Seleucids (who sided with the Carthaginians) and Ptolemies in Egypt also intensified. These clashes spread from Macedonia, through the Levant, and down into Egypt, creating an atmosphere of universal unrest and tension.
In this tumultuous backdrop, the Maccabean Revolt emerged as a significant uprising. The Jewish people, led by the Maccabees, rose against their oppressors and achieved a remarkable victory. This historic event became the foundation for the celebration of Hanukkah. Notably, Roman intervention played a crucial role in the success of the Jewish revolt.
The Jewish triumph, however, was soon followed by internal strife and a civil war that weakened the Maccabee's Hasmonean dynasty. Taking advantage of the situation, the Romans seized the opportunity to occupy Jerusalem and assert their control. They appointed a puppet king to the Jewish throne, marking the beginning of the Herodian dynasty.
These interconnected events demonstrate how the stories of different communities were intertwined within the broader tapestry of the time. The relentless struggles for power and survival shaped the geopolitical landscape of the era. It is through examining these historical events and their interconnections that we gain insight into the complexities of ancient societies and the profound impact of political dynamics within the Biblical record.
The Backstory for the New Testament, and how it relates to Jesus Christ
This historical context provides intriguing insights into the dynamics of the time period, especially when one considers the circumstances surrounding the trial and crucifixion of Jesus Christ. This can also shed better light on many of the questions that surround Rome's hostility towards Jesus. Why did Rome treat Jesus with such cruelty and contempt, and why did his treatment and torture so drastically surpass the treatment given to others, particularly those who were actually guilty of their crimes?
One plausible explanation for Rome's heated response lies in the possible portrayal of Jesus as a Phoenician rebel by the Jewish leaders. This portrayal may have influenced the Romans' perception of Jesus as a threat to their authority and stability in the region. The Romans were known for their harsh responses to rebellion, and if Jesus was depicted as a Phoenician rebel, it would have intensified their hostility towards him.
The differential treatment of Jesus compared to other criminals, such as Barabbas and the thieves on the crosses, can be attributed to the Roman perception of Jesus as a leader or instigator of a rebellious movement. This understanding helps explain the severity of the punishment inflicted upon him, including the use of nails for crucifixion, which Rome typically reserved for traitors and enemies of the state.
Examining the historical context and considering the evidence allows one to gain a deeper understanding of the motivations behind Rome's treatment of Jesus. It reveals the interplay between political propaganda, power dynamics, and the complex sociopolitical climate of the time. By exploring these connections, we can make better sense of the intense hostility Jesus faced and gain valuable insights into the crucifixion narrative.
The Romans were renowned for utilizing public crucifixions as a means of conveying powerful political messages, and this practice is exemplified in the account of Jesus' crucifixion. The manner in which Rome mocked, tortured, and ultimately crucified Jesus bears remarkable resemblance to elements of a Phoenician narrative. Several details within the biblical record support this notion and shed light on the possible connection, listed are a few of many:
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Purple Robes: Jesus being draped in Tyrian Purple Robes holds significant symbolism. Tyrian Purple was a dye associated with the Phoenician city of Tyre, renowned for its production of luxurious purple fabrics. By adorning Jesus in these robes, attention is drawn to the rich historical connotations of the dye and its connection to the Phoenician heritage.
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Taxes: The Pharisees' attempt to entrap Jesus with tax-related questions mirrors the intense legal disputes that unfolded between the Jewish community and the remnants of the northern Israelite tribes and Phoenicians during the reconstruction of the Second Temple. This context provides a backdrop that resonates with the tax-related controversies of the time, linking Jesus to the Phoenician association which they could used to provoke Roman intervention.
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Letters: The surprise expressed by Jewish scribes and leaders when Jesus displayed knowledge about letters is intriguing. While it may seem unlikely that the Jews would be astonished by Jesus' literacy, given his reputation as a teacher and the reported readings of the Tanakh in synagogues and gathering, there is another possible explanation. It is plausible that Jesus possessed an understanding of the Proto-Hebraic alphabet, which was virtually identical to the Phoenician alphabet. Roman recognition of these letters as Phoenician, and the limited understanding of their history among the general population could have easily been exploited by the Jewish scribes and leaders to further their portrayal of Jesus as a Phoenician rebel.
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Religion: The Jews held a belief that the Phoenicians practiced sorcery with good reason, and this belief influenced their attempt to convict Jesus on similar charges. Jewish leaders accused Jesus of using demonic powers to perform miracles, even making references to Beelzebub, "lord of the flies." This was a reference to Canaanite religion, particularly the deity Ba'al, who had morphed into multiple classifications and legends by that time (Ba'al Hadad, Ba'al Hermon, Baal Hammon, Baalshamin, etc). This association between Jesus and Phoenician idolatry and sorcery contributed to the allegations brought against him. Furthermore, an early copy of the Talmud, dating back to 1343 AD, contains a passage referring to the crucifixion of Jesus, asserting that he was executed for sorcery and for leading Israel astray on the eve of Passover. This reference in the Talmud reinforces the notion that the accusations of sorcery played a significant role in the Jewish leaders' attempt to portray Jesus as a Phoenician malefactor κακο + ποιός (John 18:30 INT).
These details collectively support the hypothesis that the Jewish leaders made a deliberate effort to portray Jesus within a Phoenician context. This portrayal may have been a calculated strategy to incite Roman intervention and provide justification for Jesus' crucifixion by depicting him as a Phoenician rebel. Such a depiction would have greatly influenced the Romans' perception of Jesus as a significant threat to their authority and regional stability. By exploiting the historical associations and connections to Phoenician culture, the conspiring Jewish leaders could have effectively manipulated the narratives to further escalate Rome's hostility towards Jesus, and it appears that these strategies were effective.
The New Testament accounts reveal that Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor, made efforts to distance himself from the responsibility of Jesus' execution. Pilate did not find Jesus guilty of the crimes the conspiring leaders accused him of, and he believed their motives stemmed from jealousy. Despite his attempts to protect Jesus, Pilate eventually succumbed to the relentless demands of the conspirators and symbolically washed his hands in protest, signifying his unwillingness to take personal responsibility for the decision.
During that time in Rome, Jewish courts did not possess the authority to issue a sentence of capital punishment. Additionally, according to Jewish law, crucifixion was prohibited (Jewish Encyclopedia). This historical context sheds light on the political and power dynamics at play between the Roman and Jewish authorities, highlighting the legal and religious considerations that influenced the circumstances and events surrounding Jesus' crucifixion.
The fact that Jewish courts lacked the power to administer capital punishment demonstrates the extent of Roman control over matters of life and death within the Jewish community. The Roman authorities held the ultimate decision-making power in such cases, and the Jewish leaders needed Roman approval to execute Jesus. This power imbalance had a profound impact on the outcome of Jesus' trial, as the conspiring Jewish leaders relied on Roman involvement to carry out their desired sentence.
Furthermore, the prohibition of crucifixion in Jewish law highlights the gravity and significance of the method of execution that the Jewish conspirators chose for Jesus. Crucifixion was a Roman practice, not a Jewish one, and it symbolized the ultimate form of humiliation, degradation, and punishment.
Additionally, the connection between Jesus' Crucifixion and the history and practice of Phoenician Crucifixion is highly significant, symbolic, and sobering. The Phoenicians employed the ceremonial crucifixions of their own generals and leaders as a form of punishment for political and militaristic failure. This was a practice that Rome found utterly revolting. In a deliberate act of disdain and mockery, Pontius Pilate ordered a plaque to be placed above Jesus' head with the inscription, "King of the Jews." This calculated display of derision was aimed not only at Jesus but also at the Jewish leaders who advocated for his crucifixion. The placement of such a provocative title carried a powerful political message, and this act was intended as a brazen and audacious insult, to both the Jewish government and to Jesus and his followers.
By strategically employing language and imagery associated with the Phoenicians, Pontius Pilate aimed to expose what he perceived as corruption and hypocrisy within Jewish leadership. Both the Romans and the Jews held the Phoenicians in disdain for their tradition of crucifying their own leaders as a punishment for failure. Yet, to Pilate's astonishment, the very leaders who stood before him condemning Jesus were engaging in these same reprehensible actions.
The inscription "King of the Jews" placed on Jesus' cross served as a public statement in Pilate's mind, symbolizing that the Jewish leaders had crossed over a serious line. By crucifying Jesus, whom many believed to be the rightful heir to the Davidic throne, the Jewish leaders revealed their true and corrupt character. They had descended into the same treacherous tactics that led to the downfall of their Phoenician counterparts. Their claims of religious piety and moral superiority crumbled under the weight of their egregious actions, and Rome seized the opportunity to call them out as ruthless hypocrites.
Pilate's deliberate choice of this provocative title and the association with Phoenician practices underscored the moral and ethical decline he perceived in Jewish leadership. It was a stark indictment of their betrayal and demonstrated that they were no different from the despised Phoenicians whom they had previously condemned. This symbolic act exposed the erosion of their moral high ground and shattered their claims of righteous authority
Pontius Pilate's placement of the plaque with the inscription "King of the Jews" served a dual purpose: it was both a political statement against the Jewish leaders and a means to humiliate Jesus and his followers. By proclaiming Jesus as the "King of the Jews," Pilate aimed to deride and belittle Christ, and the belief of his followers, particularly their claims that Jesus was the Messiah.
The inscription was intended to ridicule the faith, hope, and devotion of Jesus' followers, as well as the broader Jewish community. It sought to undermine their belief in Jesus, and portrayed those who believed in him as misguided and foolish for placing their trust in someone who was crucified and defeated. It also mocked the Jews in general for their belief that a Messiah would one day come to free them from the oppression of the Romans or anyone else. The message conveyed by the plaque was clear: the cause of the Jews, their hope for a Messiah and restored Israel, was dead, just like man whom they believed to be their king.
In this act, Pilate sought to assert Roman authority and superiority over the Jewish people, asserting that their aspirations and beliefs were ultimately futile. By publicly humiliating Jesus and his followers, Pilate aimed to weaken their influence, shatter their faith, and reinforce the dominance of Roman rule. The inscription on the plaque carried a powerful symbolic message, signifying Rome's perceived defeat of the Jewish cause and the superiority of their rule. (Jesus and the Cross).
The Real Message
Throughout the scriptures, one witnesses the Savior's relentless efforts to foster unity among the people. He vehemently opposed the divisions that plagued the Jews and other tribes and nations. The Parable of the Good Samaritan stands as a profound example of how Jesus fearlessly confronted the elitist and self righteous attitudes that were prevalent among Jewish leaders and others. His mission was to seek out and redeem the lost sheep, to heal and uplift the outcasts and those marginalized by society. He came to gather the scattered tribes, including the Samaritans and those who had intermarried with the Phoenicians, Syrians, Greeks, Romans, Magi, and other Gentile nations. He reached out to women, children, slaves, publicans, lepers, the lame, and even criminals, Many from these marginalized communities embraced the Savior with open arms, as they had anxiously awaited the fulfillment of the ancient prophecies that promised a Priest with Urim and Thummim who would remove the curse that had barred them from the blessings of the Priesthood and the House of the Lord. Jesus was that long-awaited Priest, the promised Messiah, and it was for this very reason that the conspiring Jewish leaders despised him.
When the Jewish lawyer posed the question, "Who is my neighbor?", Jesus astutely pointed to the example of the Samaritans. This declaration enraged the Jewish leaders, for it implied that the prophecies of Isaiah had found their fulfillment in him. He boldly asserted that he was the long-awaited Priest with Urim and Thummim, announcing that the appointed time had arrived for the captives to be set free from their exile. He reminded them of the powerful stories of the Sidonian widow and the Syrian leper, Naaman, illustrating that even foreigners faithfully served God and were qualified to experience the power of his rich blessings. Moreover, Jesus took took numerous opportunities to warn obstinate and callous leaders and individuals that they needed to repent, explaining that if the miracles performed in Tyre had been witnessed by them, the Phoenicians would have repented long ago, humbling themselves in sackcloth and ashes. In addition, he foretold that on the day of judgment, the fate of Tyre would be more favorable than the fate of those who continued to reject him and his message, for by refusing to recognize and accept him, they damned themselves from the divine truth that he brought.
Many of the earliest converts to Christianity emerged from Phoenician communities, beginning with those who were initially introduced to the Gospel by Photina, the Samaritan woman at the well. Photina was a missionary in her own right— a devoted disciple who had a profound experience with her Savior at Jacob's well. Through her powerful testimony and diligent efforts to share the Gospel, news of the Savior began to spread rapidly across various regions of the Mediterranean, including Greece, Rome, Carthage, and beyond. Her devoted work played a significant role in preparing the hearts and minds of the gentile nations, many of whom eagerly embraced Jesus Christ as the long-awaited Messiah. Their enthusiastic acceptance paved the way for the rapid growth and expansion of Christianity far beyond its Jewish origins.
The Phoenician story bears significant importance today as it reflects the timeless message of Christ's teachings on unity and the bridging of cultural, social, political, religious, and economic divides. Through multiple encounters with the Phoenicians and other gentile nations, Jesus demonstrated his mission to bring people together in his efforts to transcend societal boundaries, to break down perceived barriers of tribalism, prejudism, and division. This narrative reminds us of the enduring relevance of Christ's call for unity, respect, and love for one another, as we forgive one another, and move past our differences in our efforts to foster a global community rooted in compassion and understanding.
Christ's sacrifice and mission exemplifies the extraordinary lengths he is willing to go to seek out and save his lost sheep. He willingly dived into the depths of hell, descending below all things, to rescue not only you and me but anyone who chooses to accept his help. He extends a heartfelt plea for all to follow him, to reach out to him. This is a collective call as well as a personal one. Having experienced the lowest of lows and the most acute effects of betrayal, pain, grief, loss, anger, hate, injustice, defeat, failure, scorn, humiliation, and so forth, Christ intimately understands our struggles, and he knows precisely what we need and how to help us. If we allow him to do so, and if we listen to his voice, he will guide us out of bondage, teach us how to steadily improve through learning and following the doctrines of his everlasting gospel, and bind us to him through sacred covenants. Through His unparalleled grace, he is both patiently and eagerly waiting to take us by the hand into the Kingdom of God, consecrating us with everything he has, and thereby enabling us to qualify for eternal life and celestial exaltation. What an amazing message of love, hope, and joy! May we all have the wisdom, courage, and fortitude to hear and follow the voice of our Eternal Shepherd.